Investigating Perceptions and Practices of Bachelor of Education (BED) English as a Foreign Language (TEFL) Student -Teachers in Fostering Learner Autonomy

Abstract

This study examined the perceptions and practical implementation of learner autonomy strategies among Bachelor of Education (BED) student-teachers specializing in English language teaching within three selected Ethiopian public universities. A mixed-methods research design was employed, incorporating questionnaires, interviews, and focus group discussions to gather comprehensive and triangulated data. The findings indicated that although most student-teachers hold favorable attitudes toward promoting learner autonomy and view it as an essential component of effective language learning, they struggle to effectively apply its principles in their own learning environments. While they acknowledge the importance of allowing learners to participate in decision-making regarding their learning activities, such practices are not commonly reflected in their current experiences. Additionally, although they recognize the crucial role of teachers in guiding and supporting students toward independent learning, many reported limited preparation and confidence in delivering autonomy-enhancing instruction in future classrooms. Overall, the study highlights a noticeable gap between student-teachers’ theoretical understanding of learner autonomy and their practical ability to implement autonomy-oriented strategies. Therefore, the study recommends that curriculum developers, pre-service trainers, and language education stakeholders strengthen training programs and provide more hands-on opportunities that enable student-teachers to develop the necessary skills and pedagogical readiness to foster learner autonomy in English language classrooms.

Plain Language Summary

This study explores how English as a Foreign Language (EFL) Bachelor of Education (BED) student-teachers understand and practice the concept of learner autonomy—students’ ability to take charge of their own learning. In language education generally and in English language specifically, learner autonomy is very important because it helps students become active, responsible, and self-motivated learners who can continue learning beyond the classroom. The current research was carried out with EFL student-teachers from Ethiopian universities. Data were collected through questionnaires, interviews and focus group discussions to examine their perceptions, readiness, and classroom practices related to fostering learner autonomy. The study also aimed to identify the main challenges and opportunities they face when trying to promote independent learning among students. The findings of this study revealed that most student-teachers hold positive attitude towards learner autonomy and they recognize its importance for effective English language learning. Nevertheless, many reported limited practical experience and faced challenges such as large class sizes, exam-oriented teaching, and insufficient training on how to support autonomous learning. Despite these challenges, the participants of this study showed willingness to adopt strategies that encourage students’ active participation, reflection, and responsibility for their own learning. The study concludes that teacher education programs should include more training and practical activities on how to integrate learner autonomy into classroom practices. This will help future teachers create more engaging, student-centered learning environments that empower learners to become more independent and confident users of English.

Keywords

learner autonomy perceptions practices bachelor of education (BED)

1. Introduction

Learner autonomy has long been a central concept in language education, defined as learners’ capacity to take responsibility for their own learning, including setting goals, employing strategies, and engaging in self-evaluation. By exercising autonomy, learners are able to extend their learning beyond the classroom and into real-life contexts (Ababo & Animaw, 2023a, 2023b). In the Ethiopian EFL context, this issue has attracted growing attention, as autonomy is increasingly viewed as essential for promoting meaningful and sustainable language learning.

Teachers play a crucial role in fostering learner autonomy. For instance, Ababo and Animaw (2024a, 2024b) emphasized that teachers must act as facilitators who create opportunities for learners to make decisions, reflect, and engage actively with learning materials. Similarly, Haile (2024) demonstrated that communication strategies can enhance reflective learning, thereby enabling learners to take ownership of their progress. Internationally, Reeve and Cheon (2024) highlighted that teachers can learn to adopt autonomy-supportive practices through intervention programs, while Nguyen and Habók (2021a, 2021b) provided evidence that such practices significantly improve students’ self-regulated learning. These studies collectively indicate that the role of teachers is not limited to knowledge transmission but extends to scaffolding learner independence.

To fulfill their professional duties in assisting students to become autonomous learners, English teachers should hold positive attitudes toward learner autonomy and be competent in applying strategies that foster it. Such attitudes and skills can be developed mainly through autonomy-oriented learning experiences and targeted professional training. It is therefore unrealistic to expect teachers to cultivate learner autonomy unless they themselves value and experience it, as their beliefs and perceptions are often reflected in their instructional practices (Balçıkanlı, 2010).

Empirical evidence also shows that promoting learner autonomy largely depends on teachers’ beliefs, readiness, and professional development. This is because autonomy-supportive training enables teachers to use classroom strategies that enhance students’ motivation and self-directed learning (Reeve & Cheon, 2024). Similarly, Almusharraf and Martínez Agudo (2020) note that teachers’ beliefs and practices are deeply connected, while Vellanki et al. (2024) found that explicit training in metacognitive and strategy-based instruction strengthens teachers’ ability to nurture learner autonomy. Hence, continuous professional development is essential for teachers to effectively promote learner autonomy.

It is apparent that Ethiopian English language teachers’ perceptions towards learner autonomy and their practices in promoting learner autonomy, like elsewhere in the globe, play a crucial role in equipping the students with the skill of learning autonomy. However, translating the ideals of learner autonomy into classroom practice remains challenging. In this regard, Bedilu and Degefu (2024) found a considerable gap between teachers’ perceptions and their actual practices, particularly in vocabulary teaching for young learners.

Despite increasing scholarly attention, Ethiopian studies on learner autonomy have largely focused on students’ practices and readiness, with less emphasis on pre-service teachers. Ababo and Animaw (2023a, 2023b, 2024a, 2024b) explored students’ perceptions and the teacher’s role, while Welesilassie and Nikolov (2024) examined motivational factors. Yet little empirical work has been done on Bachelor of Education (BED) EFL student-teachers’ perceptions and practices of autonomy. As observed through professional experience and collegial input, BED student-teachers may lack adequate awareness of autonomy-related principles and the pedagogical skills to apply them.

There is a distinct need for further studies to explore ways of promoting learner autonomy and to examine English teachers’ perceptions and practices regarding this concept. Such research could help overcome challenges related to students’ independent learning and the overall quality of English education. As existing literature highlights, fostering learner autonomy enhances students’ motivation, self-regulation, and responsibility for learning (Benson & Huang, 2022; Nguyen & Habók, 2021a, 2021b). However, there are very few formal local studies on this issue, indicating a strong need for context-based investigations to guide effective educational practices.

Therefore, this study was conducted in three high schools in an Ethiopian city to fill the identified research gap and enhance understanding of English language teachers’ perceptions and practices in promoting learner autonomy. It particularly focuses on Bachelor of Education (BED) student-teachers, examining their beliefs, attitudes, and instructional strategies that foster autonomous learning. By doing so, the study contributes valuable insights to both local and international discussions on learner autonomy. Accordingly, the subsequent research questions are designed to guide this investigation and address these specific objectives.

1. What are the perceptions of ELT BED student-teachers towards students’ involvement and English language teachers’ roles in promoting learning autonomy?

2. To what extent are ELT BED student-teachers practicing the basic principles and strategies of fostering learning autonomy as future English teachers?

2. Review of Literature

Learner autonomy, a concept that has continued to draw scholarly interest in recent years (Nguyen & Lai, 2022), is defined by Benson (2017) as students’ ability to take control of their own learning. Terms such as self-instruction, independent learning, and self-directed learning are often used interchangeably with learner autonomy (Nguyen & Habók, 2021a, 2021b). This concept requires the English language learners to plan, monitor, and evaluate their progress, set learning objectives, select appropriate methods, and build confidence while developing effective strategies (Mahmud, 2023; Sundari & Febriyanti, 2020).

The shift from a teacher-centered to a learner-centered approach does not suggest that students should be entirely independent of their teachers or uninfluenced by the learning environment. Instead, it underscores a collaborative relationship in which teachers remain actively involved in facilitating learner autonomy. In this context, teachers are expected to enhance learners’ capacities and motivation by offering guidance, recommending strategies, supplying relevant materials, and designing engaging activities that encourage active participation in language learning (Alamri & Fawzi, 2021; Fathali & Okada, 2020; Mahmud, 2023; Nguyen & Lai, 2022; Xu & Chen, 2021).

Learner autonomy in foreign language learning has recently been emphasized as a crucial component of effective instruction. Recent studies (Borg & Al-Busaidi, 2020; Nguyen & Habók, 2021a, 2021b) highlight its role in fostering responsibility, self-direction, and active learner participation. This approach represents a shift from traditional teacher-centered models to learner-centered pedagogy, where students take charge of their learning processes. The focus remains on empowering learners to become independent and engaged, reflecting the sustained relevance and evolution of the concept in contemporary language education.

Teachers play a key role in fostering learner autonomy by fulfilling their instructional responsibilities (Sahbaz & Duran, 2021). Recent studies underscore the importance of creating a classroom atmosphere that nurtures independent learning, encouraging goal-setting, planning, and self-assessment (Sönmez & Gungor, 2020; Tosuncuoglu, 2022). Additionally, providing psychological, social, and technical support is essential in enabling students to take ownership of their learning process (Kara, 2021; Yildiz, 2023). Teachers can support autonomy both within and beyond the classroom by facilitating group work, promoting peer collaboration, and nurturing learner interdependence (Aditya & Kurniasih, 2021; Sultana, 2020).

Teachers must also act as both facilitators and advisors, helping students improve learning conditions while offering personalized guidance to overcome individual challenges (Klimova, 2019). Encouraging metacognitive awareness and reflection is critical to helping learners make appropriate language choices and develop their autonomy (Zarifi & Taghizadeh, 2021). This highlights the essential role of English language teachers in building autonomous and responsible learners. However, how teachers perceive learner autonomy significantly affects their commitment to promoting it. For example, teachers who view learner autonomy as integral to language achievement tend to support it more actively, while others may overlook it —a tendency often shaped by their own educational experiences and training before joining the teaching profession (Kaymakamoğlu, 2020; Sönmez & Gungor, 2020).

The professional development of teachers becomes a necessity to address teachers with negative perception perceptions towards fostering learner autonomy and implementing its basic strategies as this can curb these problems. In this regard, Tasisa (2024) noted that EFL students’ independent learning skills are closely linked to their self-efficacy and strategy use, highlighting the importance of preparing teachers to cultivate these qualities. Welesilassie and Nikolov (2024) also revealed that learners’ motivation and willingness to communicate—both central to autonomy—are enhanced when teachers provide supportive environments. Without such preparation and reflective practice, it is difficult to expect prospective teachers to consistently promote autonomy in their classrooms.

Several recent studies continue to emphasize the importance of teacher perceptions in the successful promotion of autonomy. As discussed above, teachers lacking exposure to autonomy-based pedagogical training may find it difficult to implement practices that encourage independent learning (Sahbaz & Duran, 2021; Yildiz, 2023). Likewise, teachers who have not experienced autonomy in their own academic journeys may unintentionally hinder learners from developing self-regulated learning behaviors (Aditya & Kurniasih, 2021; Kara, 2021).

Language teachers face significant challenges in fostering autonomous learning when their initial training does not sufficiently highlight its importance. Although many educators express a desire to promote learner autonomy, they often lack a clear understanding of how it redefines their instructional roles (Mammadov & Ceylan, 2022; Rachmajanti & Cahyono, 2020). This hinders the adoption of strategies that encourage learners to take initiative and ownership of their educational progress. Without foundational exposure to autonomy-oriented pedagogy, teachers may continue to rely on teacher-centered methods, thereby limiting students’ opportunities to engage in self-directed learning (Rahimi & Ghanbari, 2021). Thus, expecting English language teachers to promote learner autonomy without fully understanding or practicing it themselves may be counterproductive. This is because teaching involves reflective and self-directed practices; teachers must model these qualities to successfully inspire autonomy in students (Zarifi & Taghizadeh, 2021).

The preceding discussions emphasize the significant shift towards student-centered language instruction, highlighting the importance of learner autonomy. In this approach, learners take responsibility for designing their own learning journeys, including tasks such as planning, managing, reflecting on, and evaluating progress. Building confidence is vital, as it enables learners to make decisions with assurance. However, achieving learner autonomy depends largely on teachers’ support, as their guidance and facilitation play a crucial role in helping learners develop the skills and capacities necessary for independent learning.

Therefore, it is vital to explore the perceptions and practices of student-teachers in fostering autonomy. Investigating their perceptions is crucial as perception dictates their practices in promoting their future learners’ autonomy. It is equally important to investigate their practices in implementing the basic principles and strategies they perceive valuable for promoting learner autonomy. Doing so would help shape the ELT BED student-teachers to become promoters of their future students’ English language learning autonomy.

Although many studies have been conducted on learner autonomy, the researchers of the present study found only a few international investigations that focus on student-teachers’ perceptions and practices in promoting learner autonomy. For example, Mammadov and Ceylan (2022) reported that pre-service ELT teachers generally possess a reasonable understanding of, and hold positive perceptions about promoting learner autonomy. In contrast, several other studies show that many pre-service teachers lack adequate awareness of what learner autonomy entails.

Phan et al. (2024) found that while Vietnamese pre-service teachers generally hold positive beliefs regarding learner autonomy, there is a substantial discrepancy between their beliefs and their practices: many autonomy-promoting strategies are either not implemented or are only partially enacted. The study identified curriculum constraints, a lack of explicit training, limited institutional support, and entrenched teacher habits as the primary causes of this gap.

Similarly, Khotimah et al. (2023a, 2023b) discovered that in Indonesia, pre-service English teachers often had an inadequate understanding of learner autonomy and autonomy-supportive instruction. They tended to view autonomy narrowly—as self-access learning—neglecting its inherently social and interactive dimensions. Teachers were seen as the primary decision-makers, and students’ roles in decision-making over their own learning were minimal. The absence of explicit autonomy-based training in their teacher education curricula was identified as the main factor contributing to their limited awareness and practice.

Research on ELT BED student-teachers’ autonomy in Ethiopia remains scarce, with only Ababo and Animaw (2023a, 2023b) directly examining their perceptions and practices. Evidence indicates that many pre-service teachers lack both the understanding and practical experience necessary to foster learner autonomy, a key competency for their future roles as English instructors. To address this gap, the present study explores the perceptions and instructional practices of BED student-teachers across three public universities offering ELT programs. The findings aim to inform the development of pre-service English teacher education, enhancing opportunities for student-teachers to cultivate positive perceptions of autonomy and acquire practical skills for promoting it. Ultimately, this research contributes to preparing future English teachers capable of implementing effective autonomy-supportive strategies in their classrooms.

3. Research Methodology

To answer the two research questions listed at the end of the introduction, a descriptive survey design, using a mixed approach (combining quantitative and qualitative methods) was employed to gather and analyze the data. Three research tools: namely, questionnaire, interview, and focus group discussion were used to gather relevant data.

3.1. Research Setting

The study was conducted at three universities that offer regular English Language Teaching (ELT) Bachelor of Education programs, which align with the research focus. Institutional support facilitated access to participants and logistical arrangements. The inclusion of multiple universities ensured diverse perspectives while maintaining relevance to the study objectives. Additionally, the relative proximity of the selected sites allowed for practical coordination and efficient data collection across institutions, enhancing the feasibility of the study and enabling a comprehensive exploration of the research questions within the available resources.

3.2. Participants of the Study

The study’s respondents included ELT BED student-teachers and English language instructors from the selected universities. There were 180 ELT BED student-teachers in their second and third years, from which 124 were selected using Yamane’s (1967) formula for sample size determination. This sample comprised 62 second-year and 62 third-year students, with 60, 40 and 24 from the three universities chosen through quota and random sampling methods. Additionally, 10 ELT BED student-teachers from one of the selected universities were chosen using purposive sampling on the basis of their cumulative grade average (CGA) for focus group discussions (FGDs).

Furthermore, a total of thirty-three English language instructors specializing in Teaching English as a Foreign Language (TEFL) were identified at the selected institutions. From these, thirty were selected to complete the questionnaire using a combination of quota and random sampling techniques in order to ensure balanced representation. Accordingly, fifteen instructors were drawn from Institution A, ten from Institution B, and five from Institution C. In addition, nine instructors were chosen for interviews through purposive sampling based on their teaching experience; specifically, six were from Institution A, and three were from Institution B. These interview participants were selected for their potential to provide deeper insights that would enrich the quantitative findings of the study.

3.3. Data Collection Instruments

To collect relevant data for the study, the researchers used questionnaires, semi-structured interviews and focus group discussions. Questionnaires were used to gather comprehensive information from the respondents about BED student-teachers’ perceptions of fostering learner autonomy and their practices in applying the basic principles and strategies in their own learning. Interviews and focus group discussions provided in-depth data to support and cross-check the questionnaire responses. Using these three tools allowed the researchers to triangulate the data, enabling thorough analysis and sound interpretations. ELT BED student-teachers and English language instructors from the selected public universities were the sources of information for this study. Details about the three data-gathering tools are discussed below.

3.3.1. Questionnaires

The questionnaires used in this study for the selected ELT BED student-teachers and English language instructors were adapted from Kurniawan and Saputra (2021), Khotimah et al. (2019) and Dogan and Mirici (2017) whose instruments were originally developed to measure EFL teachers’ and learners’ perceptions, readiness, and involvement in promoting learner autonomy. These tools were carefully modified to suit the Ethiopian ELT BED student-teachers’ context, with only the most relevant items selected to meet the study’s specific objectives. In addition, some items were newly constructed based on the conceptual frameworks of Benson (2017) and Little (1991) to assess participants’ understanding of the meaning and foundations of learner autonomy. This combination of adapted and newly developed items ensured comprehensive coverage of perceptions and practices related to fostering learner autonomy. Consistent with Wijaya and Cahyono’s (2020a, 2020b) recommendation, the adaptation process emphasized contextual relevance as well as the reliability and validity of the instruments within teacher education settings.

To measure the internal reliability of the questionnaires, a pilot study was conducted using a group of teachers and students in the schools. Cronbach’s alpha was calculated for the different thematically categorized sets of questionnaires. Accordingly, the Cronbach’s alpha results for the teachers’ questionnaire ranged from 0.87 to 0.99 and the results for the students’ questionnaire result ranged from 0.986 to 0.994. This indicates that there is high internal consistency among the items of both the teachers’ and the students’ questionnaires.

3.3.2. Interview

A semi-structured interviews were designed for the selected English language teachers to collect detailed data that would complement and validate the findings from the questionnaires and focus group discussions. In order to ensure the validity and clarity of the interview items, the questions were reviewed by peers and field experts and piloted with a small group of teachers who were not included in the main study. This process allowed for the refinement of unclear or redundant items and ensured that the questions effectively captured the intended constructs. During the interviews, participants were encouraged to provide elaborate responses through probing questions, while ethical considerations such as informed consent, confidentiality, and voluntary participation were strictly observed. This approach facilitated an in-depth exploration of teachers’ perspectives and enabled the triangulation of data, thereby enhancing the reliability, credibility, and depth of the research findings.

3.3.3. Focus Group Discussion (FGD)

Initially, relevant guiding questions were developed and piloted with a small group to ensure their clarity and appropriateness. Following the pilot, a focus group discussion (FGD) was conducted with 10 purposively selected ELT BED student-teachers to further validate and enrich the data obtained from the questionnaires and interviews. The selection of participants from only one institution was influenced by practical constraints, particularly limited time and financial resources, which made it difficult to involve student-teachers from additional institutions. The FGD provided valuable insights that helped to triangulate the findings and offered deeper perspectives on the issues under investigation (Table 1).

Table 1.

Summary of Research Tools and Respondents Used for the Study

No.	Research tools	Respondents	No.
1	Questionnaire	BED Student-Teachers	124
2	Questionnaire	English Language Instructors	30
3	Interview	English Language Instructors	6
4	Focus Group Discussion	ELT BED Student-Teachers	10

3.4. Data Collection Procedures

The adapted questionnaires were piloted to identify and refine unclear or ambiguous items, after which they were administered in person and collected. During this process, areas requiring additional information to corroborate and cross-check responses from the questionnaires and focus group discussions were identified. To address these gaps, semi-structured interviews and focus group discussions (FGDs) were carefully designed and conducted with the selected participants, enabling a thorough exploration of their perspectives and ensuring the triangulation of data to enhance the reliability, validity, and depth of the study’s findings.

3.5. Methods of Data Analysis

All responses were systematically categorized based on the similarity of emerging themes. Data collected through quantitative methods, using closed-ended items, were analyzed with statistical tools, including frequency counts, percentages, and means, to identify patterns and trends. In contrast, qualitative data obtained from interviews and focus group discussions were examined through detailed narrative descriptions, allowing for an in-depth understanding of participants’ perspectives. Most questionnaire data were interpreted using descriptive statistics, providing a clear overview of responses, while qualitative data were carefully analyzed and presented in narrative form to capture nuanced insights, ensuring a comprehensive and triangulated interpretation of the findings.

3.6. Ethical Considerations

Prior to data collection, informed consent was formally obtained from all participating Bachelor of Education (BED) student-teachers and English language instructors. Then, the participants were provided with a comprehensive overview of the study’s purpose, their voluntary role, and their right to withdraw at any stage without any negative consequences. To limit the risk of harm to the study participants, the research design strictly adhered to confidentiality and data protection protocols. All data gathered through questionnaires, interviews, and focus group discussions were completely anonymized by removing personal identifiers and assigning numerical codes to both the participants and the institutions. Furthermore, all physical data were securely locked, and digital files were password-protected to ensure that participants were never exposed to any professional, psychological, or reputational risks at any time.

The potential benefits of this research to society and the study participants significantly outweigh the minimal risks involved. For example, for the participants themselves, engaging in this study provided a valuable opportunity for self-reflection on their pedagogical beliefs and practices, potentially enhancing their professional readiness. On a broader societal level, the findings offer vital insights for curriculum developers, pre-service trainers, and policymakers in order to bridge the gap between theoretical understanding and practical application in Ethiopian teacher education. This is because the study’s risks are confined to highly improbable privacy breaches—which were aggressively mitigated through our data security measures—the capacity of this research to improve the overall quality of English language education clearly justifies its implementation.

4. Results and Discussion

4.1. Results of Questionnaires’ Responses

In response to research question 2(To what extent are ELT BED student-teachers practicing the basic principles and strategies of fostering learning autonomy as future English teachers?), the data in Table 2, item 1, depicts that the majority of EFL instructors indicated that ELT BED student-teachers never participate in designing English language syllabuses. Instructors attributed this to underestimating students’ contributions due to a lack of knowledge, experience, and practice.

Table 2.

BED Student–Teachers’ Involvement in Designing English Language Syllabuses & Their Readiness to Become Autonomous Learners

No.	Item	Options	Frequency	%
1	Do ELT student-teachers in your university participate in the process of designing English language syllabuses?	Yes, always	1	3.33
		Yes, usually	2	6.67
		Yes, sometimes	7	23.33
		Rarely	0	0
		Never	20	66.67
		Total	30	100
2	Are ELT student- teachers in your university ready to be autonomous English language learners?	Yes, all of them	1	3.33
		Yes, most of them	1	3.33
		Yes, some of them	10	33.33
		Few of them	14	46.67
		None of them	4	13.33
		Total	30	99.99

In response to an interview item similar to questionnaire item 1, the instructors unanimously stated that students were never involved in designing their English language syllabi due to a lack of opportunity. For instance, one interviewee remarked, “It is clear that they don’t participate in designing syllabuses…they have no say in the course they are going to learn.” The interviewees emphasized that involving students is crucial for fostering eagerness to learn and encouraging responsibility. Regarding this issue, another interviewee observed, “We don’t have a tradition of involving students, probably one of the most important stakeholders in education.”

Table 2, item 2, reveals that the majority of EFL instructors believe that few or none of the BED student-teachers are prepared to be autonomous language learners, indicating a significant lack of readiness which is essential for fostering learning autonomy. Instructors attributed this to students’ lack of readiness, and habits, along with limited opportunities for practicing autonomous learning in their prior academic experiences.

In response to an interview item similar to questionnaire item 2, the majority of interviewees stated that students were unlikely to effectively foster learner autonomy by the end of the program. Regarding this, one interviewee commented, “How could they become autonomous and help the students to become autonomous without having the practice of autonomy themselves? This is a paradox.” They emphasized that the students lack sufficient knowledge about the importance of learner autonomy principles and have limited opportunities to practice them due to various factors. In this context, another interviewee commented,

They don’t have the culture to be autonomous. What we are doing in training is making them dependent on the teacher every time. Learning is usually a result of experience. So, I think it is obvious that unless they experience how to become autonomous, they won’t achieve it by the end.

The interviewees suggested that fostering learner autonomy should receive greater emphasis in the teaching-learning process to provide students with essential opportunities to prepare themselves to promote learning autonomy in their future students. Additionally, they recommended that integrating learner autonomy into teachers’ professional development, as classroom instruction alone may not be sufficient.

From the data analysis above, it is evident that BED student-teachers are largely excluded from participating in syllabus design, undermining the principles of a student-centered teaching approach. Their limited involvement restricts opportunities to shape and influence their own learning experiences, which is essential for developing autonomy. Consequently, this lack of engagement may impede their ability to cultivate similar autonomy in their future students, as they have fewer opportunities to practice and model independent decision-making in instructional planning. Overall, this situation highlights a critical gap in teacher education, where fostering both personal and professional autonomy is essential for effective, learner-centered teaching practices.

The ideas contained in items 4, 8 & 10 are skipped for the very reason that they are incorporated in other questionnaire items. In response to research question 1 (What are the perceptions of ELT BED student-teachers towards students’ involvement and English language teachers’ roles in promoting learning autonomy?), Table 3 presents the statistical analysis results of 10 questionnaire items related to the research question mentioned above. The responses to items 1, 2, 3, and 5 of the table indicate that BED student-teachers were not involved in selecting their English language learning materials and contents, setting learning objectives, and determining assessment methods. Additionally, both groups’ responses to item 6 reveal that BED student-teachers relied on their instructors’ decisions and instructions in learning the language.

Table 3.

Perceptions Concerning the BED Student-Teachers’ Involvement in Exercising Their Learning Autonomy

No	Instructors’ responses							Students’ responses
		Options					M		Options					M
		5	4	3	2	1	M		5	4	3	2	1	M
1	F	2	5	6	12	5	2.8	F	25	14	25	31	34	2.6
1	%	6.7	16.7	20	40	16.7	2.8	%	20	11.3	20.2	25	27.4	2.6
2	F	0	3	7	11	9	2.3	F	19	19	6	40	40	1.7
2	%	0	10	23.3	36.3	30	2.3	%	15.3	15.3	4.8	32.3	32.3	1.7
3	F	0	3	7	11	9	2.3	F	14	19	9	40	40	2.36
3	%	0	10	23.3	36.3	30	2.3	%	11.3	15.5	11.8	32.3	32.3	2.36
5	F	3	1	9	9	8	2.4	F	17	19	24	30	34	2.6
5	%	10	3	30	30	26.7	2.4	%	13.7	15.3	19.4	24.2	27.4	2.6
6	F	8	13	7	2	0	3.9	F	27	37	24	18	37	3.3
6	%	26.3	43.3	23.3	6.7	0	3.9	%	21.8	29.8	19.4	14.5	29.8	3.3
7	F	0	7	7	8	8	2.4	F	19	21	10	37	37	2.6
7	%	0	23.3	23.3	26.7	26.7	2.4	%	15.3	16.9	8.1	29.8	29.8	2.6
9	F	0	0	12	9	9	2.1	F	18	26	18	36	26	3.0
9	%	0	0	40	30	30	2.1	%	14.5	21	14.5	29	21	3.0
11	F	3	5	5	12	5	2.6	F	16	19	24	39	26	2.7
11	%	10	16.7	16.7	40	16.7	2.6	%	12.9	15.3	19.4	31.4	21	2.7
12	F	3	3	8	14	2	2.9	F	14	17	27	33	33	2.6
12	%	10	10	26.7	46.7	6.7	2.9	%	11.3	13.7	21.8	26.6	26.6	2.6
13	F	3	2	9	7	9	2.4	F	11	19	26	38	30	2.5
13	%	10	6.7	30	23.3	30	2.4	%	8.9	15.3	21	30.6	24.2	2.5

Key: 5 = Always, 4 = Usually, 3 = Sometimes, 2 = Rarely, 1 = Never, F= Frequency, M = Mean.

Items for Table 3

1. Selecting learning contents

2. Selecting learning activities

3. Setting learning objectives

5. Freely deciding how their English learning will be assessed.

6. Relying on instructor’s instruction and decision in learning English.

7. Using various resources to practice English.

9. Taking responsibility for finding their own ways of learning English

11. Evaluating their progress in learning English.

12. Actively engaging in cooperative learning activities

13. Organizing lessons in collaboration with the instructors.

The instructors’ responses to interview items similar to the questionnaire items 1, 2, 3, and 5, along with the BED student-teachers’ focus group discussion results on a related topic, align with this finding. For instance, one interviewee remarked, “They have no choice but to select this or that, and there is no room for them. They attend the courses based on the course outlines, notes, and handouts which are prepared by others.”

Both the instructors’ and BED student-teachers’ responses to items 7, 9, 11, 12, and 13 suggest that BED student-teachers have not been actively practicing English using various strategies, taking responsibility for their learning, evaluating their progress, participating in cooperative learning, or collaborating with instructors to organize lessons. Most of the respondents noted that the BED student-teachers lack opportunities to make decisions due to predetermined practices that are imposed by higher authorities without input from students themselves. They also indicated that instructors are often reluctant to deviate from established syllabi and to encourage student decision-making. Additionally, students’ limited experience and capacity further hinder their participation in these tasks.

Regarding assessment, most of the instructors responded negatively, highlighting that students generally do not evaluate their own learning. Instead, instructors handle assessment tasks, assuming that if students are involved in the assessment process, potential bias may occur due to a lack of experience, and that students focus more on assessing learning outcomes rather than their own learning processes, as reflected in similar questionnaire responses. In this regard, one interviewee noted:

The assessment procedures are prescribed by others. Probably one of the tightest aspects of their lessons is assessment. So, the teacher assesses them in whatever way he wants to assess them. They cannot claim, like, give us this and that; it is totally the teacher’s autonomy to decide what assessment methods to use.

Moreover, most of the instructors observed that only a few BED student-teachers show interest in developing their knowledge and skills, while many lack enthusiasm for self-evaluation. This lack of interest often leads students to prioritize achieving high marks over genuine learning and results in limited experience in assessing their progress. To address these challenges, instructors recommended using tools such as progress checklists and self-assessment to help students engage more actively in their own learning processes.

Regarding assessment, another interviewee commented: “By the way, we do not involve students in assessment most of the time because assessment which is done by their peers is not reliable; it can create bias. If we allow them to assess each other, the grades can be inflated or significantly depreciated.”

Regarding lesson preparation, most of the respondents reported that students do not participate preparing lessons collaboratively. This is largely due to insufficient exposure to syllabus design and course material preparation. Similarly, during the FGD, nearly all participants indicated that they lack experience in making decisions about their language learning, which further confirms their minimal involvement. This lack of engagement directly contradicts the principles of learner autonomy, which are central to learner-centered teaching. Although some students practiced self-direction during project work and practicum sessions, they did not actively engage in autonomous learning, highlighting a significant gap in their development.

In addition to this, the FGD participants identified several challenges that hinder the development of learner autonomy, including instructors’ lack of commitment to fostering students’ independent learning, students’ low confidence due to various background factors, and insufficient motivation, materials, and knowledge. Furthermore, when asked about their preparedness to encourage their future students to make decisions about their English learning and to foster autonomy, most of the BED student-teachers expressed doubts about their readiness.

Both the quantitative and qualitative data analysis results imply that BED student-teachers have not been exercising autonomy in decision-making regarding their language learning. The lack of the BED students’ engagement in fostering learner autonomy shows that the BED student-teachers were not practicing these roles during their training. This leads to a failure in putting into practice the basic strategies of promoting learning autonomy in their future teaching careers. They [the BED student-teachers] may not fully support their future students in becoming autonomous learners; revealing a crucial barrier to the development of autonomy in both current and future educational contexts. Generally speaking, limited decision-making experience in BED student-teachers’ learning plays a crucial role in limiting their capacity to implement the basic autonomy strategies and principles in their future teaching effectively.

In response to question 1 (What are the perceptions of ELT BED student-teachers towards students’ involvement and English language teachers’ roles in promoting learning autonomy?), Table 4 presents the statistical results of 15 questionnaire items related to the perceptions of the BED student–teachers towards the desirability and feasibility of involving them in making decisions about their learning and having the ability to monitor their learning. Accordingly, for items 1-8, the majority of them considered involving students in decision-making regarding learning objectives, selecting materials, content, assessment, delivery methods, progress evaluation, and syllabus design as very or quite desirable.

Table 4.

Desirability & Feasibility of BED Student-Teachers’ Involvement in Decision Making About Their Learning and Having their Ability to Participate Actively in Their Learning

No.	Desirability						Feasibility
No.	Op	4	3	2	1	M	Op	4	3	2	1	M
1	F	60	40	17	7	3.2	F	58	44	13	9	3.2
1	%	48.4	32.3	13.7	5.6	3.2	%	46.8	35.5	10.4	7.3	3.2
2	F	41	56	18	9	3.0	F	56	44	14	10	3.2
2	%	33.1	45.2	14.5	7.2	3.0	%	45.2	35.5	11.2	8.1	3.2
3	F	54	38	22	10	3.1	F	46	46	23	9	3.0
3	%	43.5	30.6	17.7	8.1	3.1	%	37.1	37.1	18.5	7.3
4	F	52	52	10	10	3.2	F	50	48	14	12	3.1
4	%	42	42	8.0	8.0	3.2	%	40.3	38.7	11.2	9.7	3.1
5	F	51	52	17	4	3.2	F	53	38	27	6	3.1
5	%	41.1	42	13.7	3.2	3.2	%	42.7	30.6	21.7	4.8	3.1
6	F	50	42	22	10	3.1	F	45	42	21	15	2.9
6	%	40.3	33.9	17.7	8.1	3.1	%	36.3	33.9	16.9	12	2.9
7	F	58	40	16	10	3.2	F	52	42	16	14	3.1
7	%	46.8	32.2	12.9	8.1	3.2	%	41.9	33.9	12.9	11.3	3.1
8	F	50	35	22	17	3.0	F	48	40	18	18	3.0
8	%	40.3	28.2	17.7	13.7	3.0	%	38.7	32.2	14.5	14.5	3.0
9	F	60	40	17	7	3.2	F	52	40	22	10	3.0
9	%	48.4	32.2	13.7	5.6	3.2	%	42	32.2	17.7	8.1	3.0
10	F	45	52	17	10	3.0	F	46	54	18	6	3.1
10	%	36.3	42	13.7	8.0	3.0	%	37.1	43.5	14.5	4.8	3.1
11	F	52	44	18	10	3.1	F.	46	48	22	8	3.0
11	%	42	35.5	14.5	8.0	3.1	%	37.1	38.7	17.7	6.5
12	F	45	45	20	14	3.0	F	45	51	20	8	3.0
12	%	36.3	36.3	16.1	11.3	3.0	%	36.3	41.1	16.1	6.5
13	F	58	36	18	12	3.1	F	40	54	20	10
13	%	46.8	29	14.5	9.7	3.1	%	32.3	43.5	16.1	8.1	3.0
14	F	53	45	15	11	3.1	F	42	50	16	16
14	%	46.1	35.5	10.5	7.9	3.1	%	33.9	40.3	12.9	12.9
15	F	50	42	14	18	3.0	F	54	46	19	5	3.0
15	%	40.3	33.9	11.3	14.5	3.0	%	43.5	37.1	15.3	4.8

Key: Op=Options, 4=Very desirable, 3=Desirable, 2= slightly desirable, 1= Undesirable, F= Frequency, M= Mean.

Items for Table 4

Involving learners in making decisions about:

1. Setting their own English language learning objectives

2. Choosing materials to be used

3. Selecting learning activities

4. Selecting learning contents

5. Ways of assessing their performance in the English language

6. Choosing teaching methods

7. Evaluating their learning progress

8. Designing course syllabuses

Learners have the ability to:

9. Identify their own strengths and weaknesses

10. Monitor their progress

11. Learn cooperatively

12. Learn independently

13. Find ways to learn English

14. Make decisions about what to learn

15. Set objectives of learning English.

However, the results of the focus group discussions indicate that they are uncertain regarding their roles in implementing learner autonomy principles, revealing that they are not ready to shoulder their responsibilities in their future teaching careers. Similarly, English instructors’ questionnaires and interview results indicate that these student-teachers are not practicing these roles during training, which may present challenges in their future careers. The majority of them perceived such involvement as feasible; however, they are not engaged in practicing it.

As shown in Table 4, items 9-15, the majority of BED student-teachers viewed it as very or quite desirable for students to identify their strengths and weaknesses, monitor progress, engage in cooperative and independent learning, develop strategies, make learning decisions, and set objectives. Despite initial unfamiliarity with the concept, they expressed support for autonomous learning after the focus group discussions. Furthermore, the majority of them believed that they could help their learners develop these skills in English. However, the lack of practical experience during training may hinder their ability to apply these skills in future teaching.

Based on the data analysis in Table 4, it can be inferred that most BED student-teachers acknowledge the significance of involving learners in making decisions about their English language learning. However, despite this positive perception, they may not actively promote learner autonomy in their future teaching careers, mainly because they have had limited personal experience practicing it themselves. This gap between awareness and practice suggests a need for more practical exposure during their training. Nevertheless, the findings also reveal that most student-teachers recognize both the importance and the potential of helping their future students develop decision-making skills in their own English language learning processes.

In response to research question 1 (What are the perceptions of ELT BED student-teachers towards students’ involvement and English language teachers’ roles in promoting learning autonomy?), in Table 5, item 1, it is shown that the majority of BED student-teachers either strongly agreed or agreed that learner autonomy involves learners making choices about how they learn. Items 2-7 of the same table show that the majority of them either strongly agreed or agreed that learner autonomy is promoted when students use various resources, participate in cooperative activities, receive teacher guidance, engage in peer learning, and select their own learning materials.

Table 5.

BED Student-Teachers’ Agreement or Disagreement to Statements Made About the Meaning and Basics of Learner Autonomy

No	Statement	OP	SA	A	UD	DA	SDA	M
1	Learner autonomy means that learners can make choices about how they learn.	F	50	54	7	8	5	4.1
1		%	40.3	43.5	5.6	6.4	4	4.1
2	Learner autonomy is promoted by practicing English outside the class.	F	48	34	29	10	3	3.9
2		%	38.7	27.4	23.4	8.1	2.4	3.9
4	Learner autonomy is fostered when learners engage in cooperative group work.	F	52	46	15	6	5	4.1
4		%	42	37.1	12.1	4.8	4	4.1
5	Learner autonomy is fostered when learners learn English with the help and guidance of the teacher.	F	50	40	15	15	4	3.9
5		%	40.3	32.2	12.1	12.1	3.2	3.9
6	Learner autonomy is promoted through activities that give learners opportunities to learn from each other.	F	68	36	15	3	2	4.3
6		%	54.8	29.0	12.1	2.4	1.6	4.3
8	To become autonomous, learners need to notice their strengths & weaknesses in learning English.		56	48	18	0	2	4.2
8		%	45.1	38.7	14.5	0	1.6	4.2
9	Learners should be responsible for finding their own ways of learning the English language to become autonomous.	F	50	47	16	6	5	4.1
9		%	40.3	37.9	12.9	4.8	4	4.1
10	To become autonomous, learners need to evaluate their progress in learning English.	F	40	45	15	12	12	3.7
10		%	32.3	36.3	12.0	9.7	9.7	3.7
12	Learner autonomy requires learners to make decisions concerning goals, topics, activities, assessment tools, and learning materials.	F	50	48	12	7	7	4.0
12		%	40.3	38.7	9.7	5.6	5.6	4.0
13	The best way to learn English in an autonomous English class is through the English instructor’s explanation.	F	36	48	14	20	6	3.7
13		%	29	38.7	11.3	16.1	4.8	3.7
16	Teacher-centered EFL classes create conducive conditions to promote learner autonomy.	F	19	23	12	54	16	2.8
16		%	15.3	18.5	9.7	43.5	12.9	2.8
17	The only role of the English instructor in an autonomous class is being a source of knowledge.	F	14	20	20	50	20	2.7
17		%	11.3	16.1	16.1	40.3	16.9	2.7
19	Learner autonomy is impossible with regard to learning English in Ethiopia.	F	12	18	20	37	37	2.4
19		%	9.7	14.5	16.1	29.8	29.8	2.4

Key: SA= Strongly Agree A = Agree, UD =Undecided, DA = Disagree, SDA = Strongly Disagree.

F= Frequency, M =Mean, Op =Options.

Items 8-12 in Table 5 show that most BED student-teachers agreed that autonomy involves recognizing strengths and weaknesses, assessing progress, taking responsibility for learning methods, and making decisions about topics, activities, assessments, and materials in English. This suggests positive perceptions of learner autonomy. However, item 13 reveals that the majority of them believe that the best way to learn the English language is through instructors’ explanations. In addition, items 16, 17, and 19 of the same table show that the majority of BED student-teachers disagreed that a teacher-centered English class promotes learner autonomy that the English instructor’s sole role is to provide knowledge, and that learner autonomy is impossible in the Ethiopian context.

During the focus group discussion, the BED student-teachers demonstrated varying levels of understanding of learner autonomy. Some participants mistakenly equated it with group work or viewed it as a process entirely independent of external support. In contrast, others correctly described it as self-directed learning that requires personal effort and responsibility. However, it became clear that only a minority of them had an accurate understanding of the concept, revealing a significant gap in their comprehension of the principles of autonomous learning. For example, one of the FGD participants stated, “Some of us think learner autonomy is just group work or working without getting help from others, but it is actually about taking responsibility for one’s own learning.

According to the results of both the quantitative and qualitative data analyses, the majority of the BED student-teachers demonstrated a clear understanding of the importance of developing learners’ own learning strategies as a key pathway to fostering autonomy. They recognized that autonomous learning involves a balanced approach, where students work both independently and collaboratively with others. However, the findings also reveal notable misconceptions among the participants regarding the teacher’s role in facilitating learner autonomy and the flexible or unrestricted contexts in which it can be effectively promoted. This suggests that, while the student-teachers have grasped the fundamental concepts and strategies of learner autonomy, they still face challenges in fully understanding how teachers should guide, support, and create enabling environments for autonomy to flourish in real classroom settings.

4.2. Discussion

The transition from teacher-centered to learner-centered approaches in English Language Teaching (ELT) underscores the importance of students taking responsibility for managing their English language learning: planning, controlling, and evaluating. They must make decisions regarding objectives, contents, procedures, and assessments through by developing strategic knowledge and confidence (Khoudri et al., 2023; Yang & Liu, 2022). However, this shift does not imply that students learn without the support of teachers. Teachers’ involvement fosters learner autonomy by enhancing capacity, motivation, and strategy development, providing materials, and creating a supportive learning environment (Maulana & Singh, 2023; Shrestha, 2024).

To effectively foster learner autonomy, English language teachers must value its role in enhancing student proficiency and confidence. If they doubt its importance, they may overlook essential instructional duties. Positive teacher perceptions encourage full commitment to professional responsibilities, including guiding, supporting, and empowering learners (Li, 2023; Salsya & Amalia, 2022a, 2022b). These studies demonstrate that when teachers recognize and embrace the value of autonomy, they engage more actively in strategies that promote students’ self-directed learning.

Teachers’ capacity to nurture learner autonomy is profoundly influenced by their own training and experiences. Without targeted development in autonomy-focused pedagogies, they may fail to implement modern instructional strategies. Assuming that they can facilitate autonomy without a clear understanding is unrealistic (Li, 2023; Slabodar, 2024). Moreover, evidence from Ethiopian university settings underscores how insufficient pedagogical support undermines effective autonomy promotion (Ababo & Animaw, 2024a, 2024b).

International studies have explored perceptions and practices regarding learner autonomy. For instance, Phan et al. (2024) conducted a case study on pre-service teachers in Vietnam, finding that these teachers lacked opportunities to practice autonomy in their own learning, which hindered their ability to help students develop autonomous learning. Similarly, Khotimah et al. (2023a, 2023b) examined Indonesian EFL pre-service teachers’ perceptions, revealing that they lacked a clear understanding of learner autonomy and autonomy-supportive instruction. They attributed this to the absence of explicit autonomy-based education in their training, with teachers still largely viewed as the primary decision-makers in the classroom. Moreover, Öztürk (2022) found that a course specifically designed to enhance learner autonomy significantly improved pre-service EFL teachers’ independence, self-awareness, and orientation towards self-directed learning.

According to Ababo and Animaw (2023a, 2023b), ELT BED pre-service teachers at Ethiopian universities generally have positive perceptions of fostering learner autonomy. However, despite these positive attitudes, they seldom apply autonomy principles and strategies in their own learning or prepare to champion autonomy in their future careers. This mirrors earlier research showing a gap between belief and actual practice, highlighting the need for explicit training to bridge the gap between perception and implementation (Yalew, 2023).

The results of both the international and local studies above show differences regarding perceptions of learner autonomy; some are positive, while others are negative. All the above studies, however, show that there are some common implementation problems. Our study aligns with the results of some of the above studies in that it reveals that there is a positive perception towards promoting learner autonomy in teaching the English language. It is also in line with all the aforementioned studies in that there is a huge problem in implementing learner autonomy in BED student-teachers’ learning.

4.3. Conclusions

This study investigated the perceptions and practices of BED ELT student-teachers in promoting learner autonomy. The results reveal that:

➢ There are some limitations regarding BED student-teachers’ perceptions of fostering learner autonomy and significant limitations regarding putting the basic principles and strategies of learner autonomy into practice.

➢ Most of the BED student-teachers accept that it is very valuable to engage students in decision-making regarding various learning aspects.

➢ The majority of the BED student-teachers believe it is both desirable and feasible for students to identify their strengths and weaknesses, monitor their progress, engage in cooperative and independent learning, recognize the need for guidance, and develop effective learning strategies.

➢ The BED student-teachers, however, believe that students learn best through the English language teacher’s explanation, implying an over-dependence on the teachers, which contradicts the principles of autonomous learning.

Though the findings indicate that the BED student-teachers held positive perceptions of fostering learner autonomy and the implementation of its essential principles and strategies for fostering learner autonomy, they did not actualize these perceptions by applying these principles and strategies to promote their own learning autonomy during their training.

➢ The BED student-teachers had no say in the process of designing their English language syllabuses.

➢ They did not take part in selecting learning content and activities, practice English through various learning strategies, evaluate their progress, and engage in cooperative learning activities.

This shows that the BED student-teachers were not preparing themselves to foster their future students’ learning autonomy. Therefore, it is unrealistic to expect BED ELT student-teachers to effectively promote learner autonomy among their future students.

5. Limitations

This research is not without its limitations. Although six public universities offer ELT BED programs, only three were included in the study due to a limited budget and time constraints, which restricted broader coverage and comparative analysis across institutions. The study concentrated solely on the perceptions and practices of ELT BED student-teachers, without examining the curriculum content or incorporating the perspectives of English language instructors in depth.

Moreover, interviews were conducted with instructors from only two institutions, and the focus group discussion was limited to student-teachers from a single institution because of logistical constraints. In addition, quantitative data were analyzed descriptively without the support of advanced statistical software, which may have influenced the level of detail in data interpretation. Therefore, further studies are recommended to include more universities, investigate the ELT BED syllabi, and consider instructors’ views more comprehensively to strengthen the generalizability and depth of the findings.

6. Implications

The findings of this study are expected to enhance the understanding of Bachelor of Education (BEd) English Language Teaching (ELT) student-teachers’ perceptions of fostering learner autonomy, as well as their practices in applying basic principles and strategies to promote it. Additionally, these results may serve as a basis for action by concerned stakeholders to better prepare BEd ELT student-teachers to encourage learner autonomy in their future careers. Accordingly, the findings may help English language educators, syllabus designers, and experts obtain concrete information regarding these student-teachers’ perceptions and readiness. This, in turn, will allow stakeholders to take crucial action to build upon the student-teachers’ strengths and mitigate their limitations.

Supplemental Material

Supplemental material - Investigating Perceptions and Practices of Bachelor of Education (BED) English as a Foreign Language (TEFL) Student -Teachers in Fostering Learner Autonomy

Supplemental material for Investigating Perceptions and Practices of Bachelor of Education (BED) English as a Foreign Language (TEFL) Student -Teachers in Fostering Learner Autonomy by Taye Gebremariam Olamo, Yirgu Asres Dory in Sage Open

Footnotes

ORCID iD

Taye Gebremariam Olamo

Ethical Considerations

Ethical approval for this research was granted by the Hawassa University (HU) College of Social Sciences and Humanities (CSSH) Research Ethics Review Committee. The official approval was issued on September 20, 2022, under the reference number CSSH/90/22.

Consent to Participate

Verbal informed consent was obtained from all individual participants before their inclusion in the study. This verbal method was utilized to ensure the complete anonymity of the student-teachers, as the observational and interview-based nature of this educational research presented no more than minimal risk. The College of Social Sciences & Humanities, Research Ethics Review Committee of Hawassa University explicitly reviewed & approved this verbal consent procedure.

Authors’ Contributions

1. Taye Gebremariam (PhD) conceived and designed the study, developed the research instruments, coordinated data collection, performed data analysis and interpretation, and prepared the initial draft of the manuscript. He also managed the overall revision and correspondence with the journal throughout the publication process.

2. Yirgu Asres (MA) contributed to refining the research design and tools, participated in data collection and validation, assisted in the analysis and interpretation of findings, and provided critical feedback to improve the clarity, coherence, and scholarly quality of the manuscript. Both authors read and approved the final version of the manuscript.

Funding

The authors received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

The authors declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Data Availability Statement

The datasets generated and analyzed during the current study are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.*

Supplemental Material

Supplemental material for this article is available online.

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