Dalit Consciousness of Marginality in Selected Short Stories

Introduction

Dalit literature has attracted many world scholars to understand the caste system in India. It consists of a long lineage of many saints and poets, who believed in the idea of caste deconstruction. Ramdas, Namdev, Eknath and Tukaram resist the caste system and promote quality. Marathi Dalit writers also created a space in literature. They aim to demonstrate the Dalits’ struggle and their challenge of being marginal (due to their hierarchical lower caste position). In the twentieth and twenty-first centuries, Dalit life was explored through various genres (such as drama, poetry and short stories). Through these genres, Dalit writers represent stories of Dalits’ marginality and power politics. They aim to demonstrate Dalits’ caste politics and painful social experiences through narratives or personal experiences.

Babasaheb Ambedkar led a social protest in the 1930s. He protested for Dalits’ entry into the Savarna temples and worked for Dalits’ equal status (Michael, 1999, p. 95). Ambedkar’s philosophy adheres to annihilating the caste hierarchy. Dalit activists spread the message of resistance to caste hierarchy, so they worked for Dalit rights and raised Dalit issues. In Indian society, the social construction of caste hierarchy and caste-based exploitation by the upper caste substantially persist. Dalit activists and writers have been working for the annihilation of caste for social change.

Dalit literature is a channel for expressing Dalit identity (Paswan & Jaideva, 2004, pp. 32–33). The well-known figures in Dalit autobiography writers are Baburao Bagul (Jehva Mi Jaat Chorli Hoti!, 1963), Laxman Gaikwad (Uchalya, 1987) and Daya Pawar (Baluta, 1978). Marathi Dalit poets include Namdeo Dhasal (Golpitha, 1973) and Narayan Gangaram Surve (Aisa Ga Mi Brahma, 1962). Dalit short-story writers include Arjun Dangle (‘Promotion’), Waman Hoval (‘The Storeyed House’), Baburao Bagul (‘Mother’) and Bhimrao Shirwale (‘Livelihood’), and they aim to depict cultural and social issues in Maharashtra (which presents Dalits’ life).

This article applies textual analyses to present Dalit consciousness. Bandhumadhav’s ‘Poisoned Bread’ (1992) and Yogiraj Waghmare’s ‘Explosion’ (1992) are significant in understanding the identity struggle and the consciousness of being marginal. It also analyses Ambedkar’s ‘ideal society’, which is built on liberty, equality and fraternity.

Method and Methodology

This research applies a framework to understand Dalit (here Dalit is the Mahar caste) consciousness of marginality in Dalit short stories—Bandhumadhav’s ‘Poisoned Bread’ and Waghmare’s ‘Explosion’. It seeks the answer to: (a) What is Dalit consciousness? and (b) What issues are presented in Dalit short stories?

This research aims to understand Dalits’ consciousness of marginality, where scholars’ (i.e., Morve, 2014a, 2014b, 2014c, 2014d; Paswan & Jaideva, 2004; Prasad & Gaijan, 2007) support theorizing the idea of Dalit consciousness of marginality and Ambedkar’s ‘ideal society’ for the annihilation of caste and for fostering a sense of unity.

A textual analysis of the short stories ‘Poisoned Bread’ and ‘Explosion’ helps to understand the Dalits’ caste-based challenges, quest for identity, unemployment, poverty, starvation and marginality. This research also examines the politics of caste oppression and explores Ambedkar’s ‘ideal society’ towards the aim of social progress.

Sociocultural Resistance: Contemporary Dalit Issues

In the twenty-first century, Dalit literature is emerging with blood, sweat and anger (Prasad & Gaijan, 2007, p. 63). Dalit literature has a central theme of a counter-reactionary combination of cultural, economic, gender, political, psychological, religious and social issues. Muktibodh (1992) stresses that Dalit consciousness somewhere becomes a reason for having Dalits’ literary production. Human freedom is the inspiration behind this presentation. Dalit literature becomes apparent from the Dalits’ real sense of the experience (Muktibodh, 1992). In India, there is persistence of caste-based inequality and Dalit exploitation due to Dalits’ lower economic and social status (see Jaleel & Chattopadhay, 2022; Haluwalia et al., 2022; Morve, 2014a, 2014b, 2014c, 2014d). Modern caste oppression persists in the twenty-first century, which has created sociocultural and economic inequality. Dalits have rights and reservations, although their condition is still weak, and they have to face many caste-related challenges in their lives.

‘Poisoned Bread’ and ‘Explosion’ are representations of Dalits’ (Yetalya, Mahadeva, Shetiba and Sheku) caste-based discrimination, exploitation and inferior position. These issues are concerned with sociocultural and politically based caste oppression. The superior and inferior political caste-based structures exist in the modern form of oppression, where ‘hardship, and poverty force most Dalits to exploit, whatever possibilities are available to them’ (Still, 2011, p. 327). Writers Bandhumadhav and Waghmare narrate the stories of Dalit exploitation, where readers empathize with characters’ struggles. These writers’ main objective is to share Dalits’ painful stories and present Dalits’ struggle to demand equal rights and dignity. ‘Poisoned Bread’ and ‘Explosion’ have some commonality in raising a voice of Dalit (Mahar caste) against discrimination, unemployment, poverty and marginality.

Bandhumadhav’s ‘Poisoned Bread’

The canonized Dalit writing highlights Dalits’ struggle and caste-based sociocultural issues. Significantly, the marginal position of Dalit consciousness (of belonging to a weaker section) becomes a core topic in Bandhumadhav’s ‘Poisoned Bread’. This short story is woven around Dalit characters, named Mahadeva and Yetalya (who belong to the Mahar caste/Scheduled Caste (SC)). Mahadeva completes education and starts living with his family in a village. Yetalya (Mahadeva’s grandfather) is a very old man. Yetalya accepts his fate as a Dalit and works on Patil’s farm as a farm labourer to fulfil the basic need of food. But when Mahadeva and Yetalya go to Patil’s house to ask for a tiny share of corn, and ears of jowar, then Patil starts to humiliate them. Bapu Patil (the owner of the farm) hurts them when he abuses Yetalya and refuses to give him a substantial part of the crops. Patil utters disrespectful words to Yetalya. Despite his aggressive words, Yetalya respects him and says,

Why do you say that, Anna? I am your slave. I have come to you on purpose on hearing of the operations at your threshing floor. My lord is our bread-giver, and we find it a privilege to beg for our share of corn, master. I am your begging Mahar, and feel proud to be so. (Bandhumadhav, 1992, p. 147)

Yetalya is aware of his Dalit identity. His acceptance of being a Dalit shows that the ‘collective consciousness of the Dalit community has long accepted some false notion in regard to them passively’ (Boruah, 2015, p. 334).

Yetalya’s and Patil’s communication is a reflection of how Dalits, in general, are being treated throughout India (see Hridaya et al., 2021, p. 21). Dalit consciousness is the mental state of people being marginal due to their Dalit/lower position. Dalit consciousness is considered in the sense of economic, social or cultural inequality (Kamlesh & Jyoti, 2022, pp. 5070–5071). Yetalya’s consciousness of being a Mahar, and his act of begging (‘He worked there, although he begs for his right of share’), give a sense of thousands of years of untouchability oppression. Yetalya accepts a marginal position, due to not having the power to resist. A systematic power control by the upper-caste group results in Mahar’s exploitation. Dalits’ powerless position is a consciousness of marginality presented through Yetalya in ‘Poisoned Bread’.

When Yetalya and Mahadeva go to Bapu Patil, Yetalya hopes to get a share of the corn, and a few ears of jowar to eat. He begs Patil for those crumbs and thinks that, having toiled the whole day, they would get a larger measure of corn. He questions, ‘Now, what shall we have for supper?’ Patil disagrees, points out to them not to forget their lower position as a Dalit and warns them not to argue with him. Here, Yetalya accepts his Dalit position, but Mahadeva resists this consciousness and starts arguing with Patil when the latter refuses. In a conversation with Mahadeva, Patil explodes:

Look here, boy! Simply because you’ve had a little education, don’t think you can teach me. You should know that God intended to have a definite hierarchy, when he created the Brahmin, the Maratha, the fisherman, the weaver, the Mahar-Mang, the Dhor, and the cobbler in that order. Everyone must abide by this scheme, and act accordingly. (Bandhumadhav, 1992, p. 149)

Mahadeva is determined to resist and condemn Patil’s idea of caste-based injustice. He defies,

‘So you think you can treat us like your footwear! But are we really like that? Aren’t we also made of the same flesh, and blood as the rest of you? We too are born after nine months in our mother’s womb. Isn’t it logical then’, I ended rhetorically, ‘that basically there’s hardly any difference between us?’ (Bandhumadhav, 1992, p. 149)

Mahadeva is young, educated and conscious of his caste as Mahar/Dalit, so he tries to raise his voice against Patil’s humiliation. Mahadeva rebels against the injustice and intolerance. ‘It signals, how education can bring insight, and courage to question the evils in society’ (Hridaya et al., 2021, p. 20). Bapu Patil dislikes this attitude of a Dalit boy and his constant resistance. As a result, Patil refuses to give a share of jowar.

Mahadeva is aware of the existing social caste–based discrimination. He takes a stand against this caste politics and acts to revolt against the Dalits’ injustice (Hridaya et al., 2021, p. 23). To explain more here, Paswan and Jaideva note that the major problem of Dalits is poverty superimposed by social discrimination. Dalits, particularly SC, were denied the right to property, education and bargain for wages (2004, p. 35). The dominant ideology of the upper caste creates a hierarchy, so Dalits face challenges for being in a marginal position.

Babasaheb Ambedkar was against caste hierarchy. He worked to construct a space for Dalits (Prasad and Gaijan, 2007, p. 2). This space for Dalits is to abolish caste. Mahadeva’s character rejects the idea of being marginal, so he defies Patil’s prejudice. He questions Patil and raises his voice for equal rights. So, Mahadeva’s educated character, and Yetalya’s words on giving importance to acquire education, both reflect the importance of Ambedkar’s philosophy to get education. Ambedkar believes in ‘higher education, in my opinion, means that education, which can enable you to occupy the strategically important places in State administration’ (Jamanadas, 2011). Bandhumadhav gives a message: Education could be a major game-changer for the marginalized. Right education with good intentions holds the power to bring about a major shift in the way that society works. He emphasizes the importance of education because it can enlighten minds and make the powerless powerful (Hridaya et al., 2021, p. 23).

The story tragically ends when Yetalya eats poisoned bread and dies. The (foul-smelling) bread that he ate at night was rancid crumbs of bread mixed with dulli (a piece of meat). This food was cooked 4 days ago. The toxin caused dysentery. Yetalya begs Patil for his share, and in the end, he dies because of stale crumbs. Patil refuses to give his rightful share of the harvest to him and claims that he is lazy. Before his death, Yetalya tells Mahadeva to achieve higher education, so his life will change. Yetalya hopes for the best future and wishes to break this hierarchical chain of power system. Ramachandran writes that the short story provides a narration in instances. Dalit writers efficiently use the condensed form of short story to highlight the final narrative instead of the subject’s dissolution. The ‘deaths’ in the stories do not reflect a celebration of the fragmented issue, but give a message of mourning (2004, p. 31) and caste-based discrimination as a poison.

Yogiraj Waghmare’s ‘Explosion’

Yogiraj Waghmare’s ‘Explosion’ narrates the story of Shetiba and his struggle to find a job. He goes to many places in pursuit of a job, but he fails to get one. His unemployment status presents the condition of other Dalits, who are victims of caste-based politics and discrimination. For him, the factory at Dhoki is the end resort to grab a job, but Shetiba is unsuccessful. This study addresses economic and political burden due to caste-based discrimination.

Shetiba passed the matriculation exam 3 years ago, although he fails to get a suitable job. There is no job as a clerk, schoolteacher, talati or gramsevak, but he could get a job as a peon (Waghmare, 1992, p. 187). Shetiba is sure about getting a job, but the reality is miserable for Dalits. He does not get any work because of his marginal position. When he fails, at last, he becomes ready to carry molasses as he has no other options to survive. Even after studying, Shetiba is unable to get even low-skilled/status work. His struggle for bread shows the caste–political impact on young Dalits.

Shetiba is unemployed even after struggling to get work. So, Sheku worries about him and talks about Shetiba’s condition in the Sarpanchayat meeting. Sheku asks for a share of vatandari in Sarpanchayat, but he does not receive his share. Sheku is worried and wrung by poverty. Sheku cries because of seeing Shetiba struggling for his rights. The relevance of this short story is to see today’s Dalit issues of poverty and unemployment.

Struggles and injustices faced by marginalized groups can be minimized by acquiring education. Ambedkar mentions the importance of education in reducing differences:

I cannot forget. Rather I am sad, that many people do not realise that the Caste system is existing in India for centuries because of inequality, and a wide gulf of difference in education.… The difference in status between these can only be reduced by higher education. Some non-Brahmins must get highly educated and occupy the strategically important places, which has remained the monopoly of Brahmins since long. I think this is the duty of the State. If the Govt. cannot do it, institutions like―Maratha Mandir must undertake this task. (cited in Singh, 2014, p. 178)

Dalit Consciousness of Marginality and Ambedkar’s ‘Ideal Society’

Social marginalization occurs when a person, or groups of people, are less able to acquire things or access basic services or opportunities. It is referred to as social exclusion. Dalits have historically suffered caste-based social exclusion of civil, cultural and political rights (Vaijanath, 2022, p. 1136). Dalit collective consciousness is a socially and culturally constructed reality. It expresses, initiates and engages social protests for empowerment and emancipation discourse. Such social protests have become a norm of social assertion for the empowerment of the marginalized groups. This is especially the case in a society that is highly stratified in social, economic, political and cultural realms, and where this stratification has been maintained through social and cultural engineering of domination and subordination for centuries (Kamlesh & Jyoti, 2022, p. 5065). A systematic denial of education is a way to exclude a certain community from the public sphere. Many examples from Dalit writings speak to the fact that, despite the fact that Dalits have received an education, it is not an easy job to become part of the public sphere in India (Kumar et al., 2022). This adversity is seen in ‘Poisoned Bread’ and ‘Explosion’: when Patil says that education does not change Dalits’ position. Mahars and Mangs will be the same; even Dalits pursue an LLB degree and become barristers. In another case, a denial of the public sphere exists, when Shetiba (after passing matriculation) wanders in a factory to search for work to survive.

Individual identity shapes a person’s self-perception of the world. It is surrounded by caste, class, religion and race, and is based on certain belief systems (Morve, 2014c, p. 198). Dalit consciousness of marginality questions Dalit identity, where Dalits (characters such as Mahadeva, Yetalya, Shetiba and Sheku) struggle for equal opportunities in employment, education and equal status in the social sphere. As shown in ‘Poisoned Bread’ and ‘Explosion’, a caste-based society gives birth to a modern form of untouchability. Dalits remain in a weaker section, and the elite group throws Dalits to the periphery (as we can see in Yetalya’s case, when Bapu denies giving jowar, and it is visible in Shetiba’s job struggle).

Paswan and Jaideva write that 90% of the Dalits live a miserable life. Dalits are still facing caste-based discrimination and humiliation. Dalits are still far behind in acquiring education due to poverty, low economic situation and the caste-based discrimination system. Many other reasons restrict Dalits from getting an education. Statistical data reveal Dalits’ have a lower percentage of literacy rates. In 1991, census data showed that 62.52% of SCs remain illiterate, and a high number of students do not complete primary education. A Union Human Resources Development Ministry report mentions that nearly a third of Dalit children aged 6–11 years do not enrol in primary school (Paswan and Jaideva, 2004, p. 54). Sukhdeo Thorat assesses the SC concerns of poverty in rural areas. Specifically, educational deprivation among SCs and social inequalities have been subjected to cumulative historical, socio-economic and structural deprivations. However, educational attainment numbers demonstrate SCs and non-SCs/STs were irrepressibly poor in education (Thorat, 2009).

Bhoi and Lakra (2022) write about the Indian Dalit (SC/ST) students’ issues in higher education. They focus on equal dignity cells in resolving fellowship issues and de-marginalization in the fellowship system. Their study results find that Dalit students face difficulties in administrative issues, and students complained of facing academic discrimination from their teachers, university/institute staff and fellow students during the fellowship process. Education was assigned a revolutionary role in Ambedkar’s conception of social progress. Ambedkar’s vision was to value education, and he believed that education immensely impacts society. It trains the human mind to think and make the right decision. In other words, human beings become rational when they are educated. Knowledge and information are received, and can be spread through education only. Uneducated persons cannot read, or write, so all knowledge and wisdom are closed to them (Sowrabha, 2018). In 1955, Article 35 passed the constitutional ‘Protection of Civil Rights Act’. However, the Constitution provides certain educational facilities under Articles 15(4) and 46, and reservations in employment under Articles 16(4) and 335. Also, reservations in the central and state legislature under Articles 330(1) and 332(1) are considered for the amelioration of the socio-economic condition of Dalits (Kshirasagara, 1994, p. 1).

In the education field, students’ suicide and discrimination rates persist to date. Some have lost their faith due to being discriminated against. Bandhumadhav and Waghmare made an effort to narrate similar experiences of Dalits. In ‘Explosion’, Shetiba struggles to get a job, and in ‘Poisoned Bread’ Mahadeva’s situation as being a Dalit after acquiring an education makes him conscious of being a Dalit. Dalits find discrimination in the education and social spheres. For social development, we need no institutional caste politics, but we need to provide equal representation to all castes. Equality will be achieved only by following Ambedkar’s philosophy. Caste history has persisted for many years, so it takes many years to fill the gaps.

‘Poisoned Bread’ is a crucial social document, which shows India’s caste system (Ramachandran, 2004, p. 29). Dalit people have transformed Dalit marginal sites into a source of resistance (Kumar et al., 2022, p. 1). For this annihilation of caste, Ambedkar writes:

If you ask me, my ideal would be a society based on liberty, equality, and fraternity … an ideal society should be mobile, should be full of channels for conveying a change taking place in one part to other parts. (Ambedkar, 2014, p. xi)

The struggle for liberty is informed by a philosophy of equality. Liberty means freedom from captivity, imprisonment, slavery or despotic control. This challenged the privileged classes to such excellence. When oppressed sections rise against oppressors in peasant revolts, or national struggles for independence, then they challenge the alleged superiority of oppressors, demanding equality and justice on the universal principle of human equality (Ram, 2018).

Ambedkar is a revolutionary philosopher, and the father of the Constitution (Singh, 2014, p. 99). Ambedkar gives the highest place to ‘fraternity’. According to him, law is secular, and anybody can break it. Fraternity/religion is sacred, and we must respect it. A fraternity can protect ‘liberty’, ‘equality’ and ‘social justice’. Ambedkar’s philosophy aims to engage in and understand depressed people’s minds—this is for changing their thoughts and old behaviours. Also, this is to lift their vision in the direction of unity, and emancipation through education and religion (Singh, 2014, pp. 99–100). The 2005 Annual Report of the ‘National Crime Records Bureau’ (NCRB) mentions that one crime against SCs is committed every 20 minutes (National Campaign on Dalit Human Rights, 2008).

Caste discrimination is a major issue in the education sector. In Maharashtra, Dalits are exploited and marginalized due to upper-caste (Brahmin/Savarna) politics. Dalit writers have captured these social and political experiences in their writing and the value to educate Dalits and inspire them to work against injustice. Debnath writes that Dalit writers are bound to uphold the consciousness of the Dalit life. At the same time, they rebel through literary creations for their right (Debnath, 2016, p. 71). Ambedkar’s philosophy influences many Dalit writers and activists. After the social movement and the oral tradition (songs, lectures and so on) of the Dalit protest, Dalit writing was adequate to spread Ambedkar’s message to society. Dalit literature has existed since 1958—it emerged in the 1960s. Many Dalit writers start writing in many Indian languages. In poetry, novel, drama and autobiography—as a protest genre—Dalit literature blinks out by breaking a long history of silence for liberation. Dalit literature becomes a medium of protest. Dalit literature is a voice of exploitation and a form of rebellion presented by writers. The negotiation of Dalits has significantly created a space and attracted readers across the world to understand Dalit issues.

Conclusion

Dalits raise their voice against discrimination and sociopolitical challenges (Paswan & Jaideva, 2004, p. 58). ‘Poisoned Bread’ and ‘Explosion’ represent Dalit consciousness of being marginal, where characters such as Mahadeva and Shetiba struggle to deconstruct the caste system. It finds that there is a need for revolution and annihilation of caste to complete Ambedkar’s ‘ideal society’ model. ‘Poisoned Bread’ and ‘Explosion’ address Dalit issues in their stories. Issues such as caste discrimination, poverty and caste politics in Maharashtra persist in Dalit lives. These short stories represent Dalits’ marginal position. Bandhumadhav and Waghmare as Dalit writers aim to demonstrate Mahar families’ (Yetalya’s and Sheku’s family) struggle, and show the importance of education—education is a tool to challenge caste discrimination and resist caste politics. Education is the only way to build an ‘ideal society’. In both stories, there are many things in common as we can see: In the Mahar families (Yetalya and Sheku), economic crisis, starvation and unemployment status of the young characters present a struggle-filled life. This makes them conscious of being marginal. Despite being educated, Mahadeva and Shetiba became victims of caste politics, and the younger generation failed to get any work. Yetalya died in poverty, and starvation can also be seen in Yetalya’s case. The writers aim to present how characters are aware of their Dalit consciousness, and young characters are raising their voice against the Dalit consciousness of marginality.