Abstract
Abstract
Through examination of variants in two versions of Jinpingmei, three versions of Water Margin, two versions of Journey to the West, and between relevant sections of Qingpingshantang Scripts, Ancient and Modern Fiction, Jingshi Tongyan, and Amazing Stories, the existence of two trends of elegance and popularity in the orthography of different versions and literary works may be detected. Those texts with a more elegant character have been largely influenced by a strategy of standardized orthography, which is closely related to the creation purpose, knowledge, and cultural awareness of the authors, the willingness of booksellers to produce and sell such works, and their target consumers and readership. The differentiation between elegance and popularity in the character of literary works truly reflects the divergence of different texts within different social strata, which is not only a linguistic and philological question, but also a sociological one.
Introduction
A number of important novels were written in the Ming Dynasty, including the ‘Four Wonders of the Ming Dynasty’, namely, Romance of the Three Kingdoms, Water Mar-gin, Journey to the West, and Jinpingmei, as well as Yushi Mingyan, Jingshi Tongyan, Xingshi Hengyan, Amazing Stories I, and Amazing Stories II. These novels use simple language and employ many popular idioms and proverbs. The orthography lacks strict norms, and includes various false characters, popular forms, and erroneous characters. In the study of Chinese history, these novels and literary works are generally viewed as being representative of popular literature in the Ming Dynasty. This is not only the understanding of the current generation; people at the time were also conscious of the popular characteristic of the diction of these novels. Huai Lin, in Rong Yutang’s version of Water Margin, opined that Water Margin contains many erroneous characters, which stem from the differences between popular writings and historical records, and which monks need not necessarily correct.
Some scholars have noted a difference in terms of elegance versus popularity in different editions of the novels in question, such as Tu (2013) and Zhang (2014), but these studies have been mainly conducted from the perspective of language, illustrations, textual content, and so on. This article, using 词话Ci Hua and 崇祯Chong Zhen versions of Jinpingmei, three versions of Water Margin (容与堂Rong Yutang, 天启Tian Qi, and 贯华堂Guan Huatang), and various copies of relevant chapters of Qingpingshantang Scripts, Ancient and Modern Fiction (first edition of Yushi Mingyan), Jingshi Tongyan, and Amazing Stories, 1 examines from the perspective of orthographic standardization the trends in diction of these different editions and works, in order to investigate the differentiation of elegance and popularity in novels of the Ming Dynasty, and explores the causes of this phenomenon. One point to note is that the characters employed in the surveyed texts differed in form in terms of complexity versus simplicity and standardization versus popularity. This article attempts to preserve the character forms as they appear in the original texts.
Variants in orthography between different versions of literary works
‘吃∕喫’ chi, ‘乞’ qi expressing the meanings of ‘eating’, ‘suffering’, ‘passivity’, ‘reasons’, and ‘supplication’
Jinpingmei (two versions), Water Margin (three versions), Qingpingshantang Scripts, Ancient and Modern Fiction, and Jingshi Tongyan employed the following characters, summarized in Table 1.
‘吃/喫’chi, ‘乞’ qi expressing the meanings of ‘eating’, ‘suffering’, ‘passivity’, ‘reasons’, and ‘supplication’.
a Jinpingmei; bWater Margin; cQingpingshantang Scripts; dAncient and Modern Fiction; e Jingshi Tongyan.
1. A 姐姐們都乞吃食勾來了罷，一個也曾見長出愧兒來？(46-1214)
jiě jiě men dōu qǐ(chī shí) gōu lái le bà, yī gè yě céng jiàn zhǎng chū kuì ér lái.
The sisters all ate, and one of them had gained weight. (46-1214)
B 姐姐每都吃吃食勾來了罷，幾曾見長出塊兒來？(10-46)
jiě jiě měi dōu chī(chī shí) gōu lái le bà, jǐ céng jiàn zhǎng chū kuài ér lái?
The sister all ate, and when have you seen them gaining weight? (10-46)
2. A 月娘乞遭受了一驚，就不上去。（33-861）
yuè niáng qǐ(zāo shòu) le yī jīng, jiù bú shàng qù.
The Yueniang was surprised and would not go. (33-861)
B 月娘吃遭受了一驚，就不上去。（7-33）
yuè niáng chī(zāo shòu) le yī jīng, jiù bú shàng qù.
When Yueniang was shocked, she did not go up. (7-33)
3. A 他爹見了我，訕訕的，乞被动我罵了兩句沒亷恥。（25-651）
tā diē jiàn le wǒ, shàn shàn de, qǐ(bèi dòng) wǒ mà le liǎng jù méi lián chǐ.
B 他爹見了我，訕訕的，吃被动我罵了兩句沒亷恥。（5-25）
tā diē jiàn le wǒ, shàn shàn de, chī(bèi dòng) wǒ mà le liǎng jù méi lián chǐ.
A/B His father saw me, embarrassed, and I insulted him shamelessly. (25-651)/(5-25)
4. A 但乞原因了這左眼大，早年尅父；右眼小，周歲尅娘。（29-758）
dàn qǐ(yuán yīn) le zhè zuǒ yǎn dà, zǎo nián kè fù; yòu yǎn xiǎo, zhōu suì kè niáng.
B 但吃原因了這左眼大，早年尅父；右眼小，周歲尅娘。（6-29）
dàn chī(yuán yīn) le zhè zuǒ yǎn dà, zǎo nián kè fù; yòu yǎn xiǎo, zhōu suì kè niáng.
A/B But as his left eye was large, he brought bad luck to his father in his early years; the right eye was small, and brought bad luck to his mother on birthdays. (29-758)/(6-29)
5. A 却說陳經濟晚夕在泠舖存身，白日間街頭乞乞求食。（93-2768）
què shuō chén jīng jì wǎn xī zài líng pù cún shēn, bái rì jiān jiē tóu qǐ(qǐ qiú) shí.
He said that Chen Jingji stayed at the cold shop at night and begged for food in the street in the daytime. (93-2768)
B 陳敬濟晚夕在冷舖存身，白日間街頭乞乞求食。（19-93）
chén jìng jì wǎn xī zài lěng pù cún shēn, bái rì jiān jiē tóu qǐ(qǐ qiú) shí.
Chen Jingji stayed at the cold shop at night and begged for food in the street in the daytime. (19-93)
6. A 你先吃吃食了些晚飯，我使你一處去幹事。（2-2）
B 你先吃吃食了些晚飯，我使你一處去幹事。（2-2）
C 你先喫吃食了些晚飯，我使你一處去幹事。（6-1）
A/B/C nǐ xiān chī(chī shí) le xiē wǎn fàn, wǒ shǐ nǐ yī chù qù gàn shì.
A/B/C You eat some food for supper first, and I will go with you. (2-2)/(6-1)
7. A 特使人打聽得哥哥乞遭受官司，直要來鄆城縣刼牢。（36-36）
tè shǐ rén dǎ tīng dé gē gē qǐ(zāo shòu) guān sī, zhí yào lái yùn chéng xiàn jié láo.
The envoy inquired about the lawsuit taken out against his brother and wanted to come to Yuncheng to rescue him. (36-36)
B 特使人打聽得哥哥吃遭受官司，直要來鄆城縣刼牢。（36-36）
C 特使人打聽得哥哥喫遭受官司，直要來鄆城縣劫牢。（40-35）
tè shǐ rén dǎ tīng dé gē gē chī(zāo shòu) guān sī, zhí yào lái yùn chéng xiàn jié láo.
A/B/C The envoy inquired about the lawsuit taken out against his brother and wanted to come to Yuncheng to rescue him. (36-36)/(40-35)
8. A 李逵乞被动宋江逼住了，只得撇了雙斧，拜了朱仝兩拜。（52-52）
B 李逵乞被动宋江逼住了，只得撇了雙斧，拜了朱仝兩拜。（52-52）
A/B lǐ kuí qǐ(bèi dòng) uan jiāng bī zhù le, zhī dé piě le shuāng fǔ, bài le zhū tóng liǎng bài.
C 李逵喫被动宋江逼住了，只得撇了雙斧，拜了朱仝兩拜。（56-51）
lǐ kuí kài(bèi dòng) uan jiāng bī zhù le, zhī dé piě le shuāng fǔ, bài le zhū tóng liǎng bài.
A/B/C Li Kui was forced by Song Jiang to drop the double axes and salute Zhu Tong. (52-52)/(56-51)
9. A 乞原因我把话来侵他底子，那猪狗便打我一顿栗暴，直叉我出来。（26-26）
B 乞原因我把话来侵他底子，那猪狗便打我一顿栗暴，直叉我出来。（26-26）
A/B qǐ(uan yīn) wǒ bǎ huà lái qīn tā dǐ zǐ, nà zhū gǒu biàn dǎ wǒ yī dùn lì bào, zhí chā wǒ chū lái.
A/B As I hurled insults at him, that thug hit me forcefully and forced me out. (26-26)
C 喫原因我把话来侵他底子，那猪狗便打我一顿栗暴，直叉我出来。（30-25）
Chī(uan yīn) wǒ bǎ huà lái qīn tā dǐ zǐ, nà zhū gǒu biàn dǎ wǒ yī dùn lì bào, zhí chā wǒ chū lái
As I hurled insults at him, that thug hit me forcefully and forced me out. (30-25)
10. A 在城中安不得身，只得來城外求吃乞求度日。（62-62）
B 在城中安不得身，只得來城外求吃乞求度日。（62-62）
A/B zài chéng zhōng ān bú dé shēn, zhī dé lái chéng wài qiú chī(qǐ qiú) dù rì.
A/B Unable to settle down in the city, he was forced to beg for food outside the city. (62-62)
C 小乙城中安不得身，只得來城外求乞乞求度日。（66-61）
xiǎo yǐ chéng zhōng ān bú dé shēn, zhī dé lái chéng wài qiú qǐ(qǐ qiú) dù rì.
Xiao Yi was unable to settle down in the city and was forced to beg for food outside the city. (66-61)
11. A 如今看要教侍兒吃遭受甚罪名，皆出賜大尹筆下。（1-简帖和尚）
rú jīn kàn yào jiāo shì ér chī(zāo shòu) shèn zuì míng, jiē chū cì dà yǐn bǐ xià. (1-jiǎn tiē hé shàng)
The reason he got dragged into serious lawsuits was Da Yin’s writing. (1-Simple post monk)
B1 如今看要侍兒喫遭受甚罪名，皆出賜大尹筆下。（35-简帖僧巧骗皇甫妻）
rú jīn kàn yào shì ér chī(zāo shòu) shèn zuì míng, jiē chū cì dà yǐn bǐ xià. (35-jiǎn tiē sēng qiǎo piàn huáng fǔ qī)
The reason he got dragged into serious lawsuits was Da Yin’s writing. (35-Simple post of monk deceiving Huang Pu’s wife)
12. A 呌門公開了山門，淸一打一看時，乞遭受了一驚。（3-五戒禅师私红莲记）
jiào mén gōng kāi le shān mén, qīng yī dǎ yī kàn shí, qǐ(zāo shòu) le yī jīng. (3-wǔ jiè chán shī sī hóng lián jì)
B1 呌門公開了山門，淸一打一看時，喫遭受了一驚。（30-明悟禅师赶五戒）
jiào mén gōng kāi le shān mén, qīng yī dǎ yī kàn shí, chī(zāo shòu) le yī jīng. (30-míng wù chán shī gǎn wǔ jiè）
The door opened, and he was taken aback when he saw it. (3- Five Disciplines Buddhist Red Lotus)
The door opened, and he was taken aback when he saw it. (30- Mingwu Buddhist Expelling Five Discipline)
13. A 前日，一件物事教我把去賣，吃被动人交加了。（1-简贴和尚）
B1 前日，一件物事教我把去賣，喫被动人交加了。（35-简帖僧巧骗皇甫妻）
qián rì, yī jiàn wù shì jiāo wǒ bǎ qù mài, chī(bèi dòng) rén jiāo jiā le. (35-jiǎn tiē sēng qiǎo piàn huáng fǔ qī)
qián rì, yī jiàn wù shì jiāo wǒ bǎ qù mài, chī(bèi dòng) rén jiāo jiā le. (1-jiǎn tiē hé shàng)
The day before, I sold an article and was bullied by others. (1-Simple post monk)
The day before, I sold an article and was bullied by others. (35- Simple post of monk deceiving Huang Pu’s wife)
14. A 周氏不敢言語，乞被动這大娘罵了三四日。（雨窗集·错认尸）
zhōu shì bú gǎn yán yǔ, qǐ(bèi dòng) zhè dà niáng mà le sān sì rì. (yǔ chuāng jí •cuò rèn shī)
Zhou did not dare to retort, insulted by Daniang for three or four days. (Yuchuang Set, Cuorenshi)
B2 周氏不敢言語，喫被动高氏罵了三四日。（卷三十三·乔彦杰一妾破家）
zhōu shì bú gǎn yán yǔ, chī(bèi dòng) gāo shì mà le sān sì rì. (juàn sān shí sān •qiáo yàn jié yī qiè pò jiā)
Zhou did not dare to retort, insulted by Daniang for three or four days. (Volume 33, Qiao Yanjie Pojia)
Regarding ‘吃’chi and ‘乞’qi used in Jinpingmei to indicate passivity, there has always been controversy in academic circles: one view is that ‘吃’chi is derived from ‘suffering’ and the character ‘乞’qi is borrowed from ‘吃’chi (Jiang, 1989); another view is that ‘乞’qi is derived from the meaning of ‘giving’ and the form ‘吃’chi is borrowed from ‘乞’qi (Zhang, 1989) Both views have their own adherents. Our survey shows that ‘乞’qi and ‘吃’chi are used interchangeably in 词话Ci Hua’s version of Jinpingmei to express ‘eating’, ‘suffering’, ‘passive’, ‘reason’, etc., while the 崇祯Chong Zhen version basically uses ‘吃’chi in the place where ‘乞’qi occurs in the 词话Ci Hua version. The choice of ‘乞’qi in the 词话Ci Hua version means there was no differentiation in orthography for words expressing ‘eating’, ‘suffering’, ‘passive’, ‘reason’, and ‘supplication’. The changes in the 崇祯Chong Zhen version mean that the meanings of ‘eating’, ‘enjoy’, ‘passive’, and ‘reason’ are expressed by the written form ‘吃’chi, and the meaning ‘supplication; seek’ by the written form ‘乞’qi. The difference in characters thus distinguishes between different words.
In 容与堂Rong Yutang’s and 天启Tian Qi’s versions of Water Margin, ‘吃’chi and ‘乞’qi are used interchangeably for the expression of ‘eating’, ‘suffering,’ ‘passive’, ‘reason’, and ‘supplication’. In the 贯华堂Guan Huatang version, the meanings of ‘eating’, ‘suffering’, ‘passive’, ‘reason’ are generally expressed using ‘喫’chi, while ‘supplication’ is expressed by ‘乞’qi. In the Qinpingshantang Scripts, ‘吃’chi and ‘乞’qi are used interchangeably in the expression of ‘suffering’ and ‘passive’. The corresponding texts in Ancient and Modern Fiction and Jingshi Tongyan basically use ‘喫’chi. Changes in 贯华堂Guan Huatang’s version of Water Margin, Ancient and Modern Fiction, and Jingshi Tongyan make it possible to distinguish the meanings of ‘suffering’ and ‘passive’ from ‘supplication’ from the written form. This is reflected in the linguistic cognition of the writers of the 崇祯 Chong Zhen version of Jinpingmei, the 贯华堂Guan Huatang version of Water Margin, Ancient and Modern Fiction, and Jingshi Tongyan, in which the expression of ‘suffering’, ‘passive’, etc. is via a single character, namely ‘吃（喫）’chi. This lends support to the idea that ‘吃’chi indicating the passive voice is derived from ‘suffering’, and that ‘乞’qi is the borrowed form of ‘吃’chi.
‘教/交’jiao to express the meanings of ‘cause’/‘make’
Jinpingmei (two versions), Water Margin (three versions), Qingpingshantang Scripts and Ancient and Modern Fiction use the following characters, summarized in Table 2.
‘教/交’jiao to express the meanings of ‘cause’/‘make’.
a Jinpingmei; bWater Margin; cQingpingshantang Scripts; dAncient and Modern Fiction.
15. A 賞了他五錢銀子，交他吃了飯，伺候與哥兒剃頭。（52-1377）
B 賞了他五錢銀子，教他吃了飯，伺候與哥兒剃頭。（11-52）
A/B shǎng le tā wǔ qián yín zǐ, jiāo tā chī le fàn, sì hòu yǔ gē ér tì tóu.
He was rewarded five qian of silver to have a meal, and helped to shave his brother’s head. (52-1377)
He was rewarded five qian of silver to have a meal, and helped to shave his brother’s head. (11-52)
16. A 戴宗那里肻要，定交收放庫内，公支使用。（41-41）
B 戴宗那里肻要，定交收放庫内，公支使用。（41-41）
A/B dài zōng nà lǐ kěn yào, dìng jiāo shōu fàng kù nèi, gōng zhī shǐ yòng.
Dai Zong cannot accept [the money] and will definitely store it as public funds. (41-41)
C 戴宗那里肯要，定敎收放在庫内，公支使用。（45-40）
dài zōng nà lǐ kěn yào, dìng jiào shōu fàng zài kù nèi, gōng zhī shǐ yòng.
Dai Zong cannot accept [the money] and will definitely store it as public funds. (45-40)
17. A 相公交門吏出問：‘何事要見相公？’（3-五戒禅师私红莲记）
xiàng gōng jiāo mén lì chū wèn: ‘hé shì yào jiàn xiàng gōng?’ (3-wǔ jiè chán shī sī hóng lián jì)
The husband ordered the doorkeeper to inquire: ‘Why do you want to visit Xianggong?’ (3-Five Discipline Buddhist Red Lotus)
B1 東坡教門吏出問：‘何事要見相公？’（30-明悟禅师赶五戒）
dōng pō jiāo mén lì chū wèn: ‘hé shì yào jiàn xiàng gōng?’ (30-míng wù chán shī gǎn wǔ jiè)
Dongpo ordered the doorkeeper to inquire: ‘Why do you want to visit Xianggong?’ (30-Mingwu Buddhist Expelling Five Discipline)
The ‘教（交）’jiao causative construction was common in the Chinese of the Ming Dynasty. Used for an extensive period, there were a few instances of its usage in the Han Dynasty; thereafter it was extensively used from the Tang Dynasty to the late Ming Dynasty. The earliest use of ‘教（交）’jiao was found in the Tang Dynasty. The ‘教（交）’jiao in 广韵肴韵 Guangyun Yaoyun are ‘古肴切’ (ancient yao qie); this author regards ‘交’jiao as the Tongjia word of ‘教’jiao. During the Tang, Song, and Yuan Dynasties, it was common to use the word ‘交’jiao in literary texts to express a causative structure, particularly in popular literary works. For example, the 敦煌变文集 Dunhuang Bian Collections (especially prose, lyrics and idioms) of the Tang Dynasty used ‘交’jiao quite often. The Song Dynasty literature Liu Zhiyuan Zhugong Tune uses ‘交’jiao instead of ‘教’jiao. The 元典章刑部Yuan Dian Zhang: Criminal Division, a Yuan Dynasty work with strong oral characteristics, used ‘交’jiao significantly more (209 cases) than ‘教’jiao (80 cases) (Liu, 2015: 26, 46, 66). From the Ming Dynasty onwards, the causitive use of ‘交’jiao seems to have begun to decline. For example, Xiangban Shunyi (1992: 334) points out that the use of ‘交’jiao in Water Margin was limited; Yang (2004: 33–34) also points out that The Romance of the Three Kingdoms, Journey to the West, Dream of Red Mansions, Brave Lady, and other documents no longer used ‘交’jiao. Our survey shows that in causative constructions, ‘交’jiao and ‘教’jiao are interchangeable in the 词话Ci Hua version of Jinpingmei, while 崇祯Chong Zhen mostly replaces ‘交’jiao with ‘教’jiao in his own version.
In 容与堂Rong Yutang’s and 天启Tian Qi’s versions of Water Margin, ‘交’jiao and ‘教’jiao are used interchangeably in causative structures, while 贯华堂Guan Huatang largely uses ‘教’jiao. In Qingpingshantang Scripts ‘交’jiao and ‘教’jiao are used interchangeably in causative constructions. In the case of the corresponding texts found in Ancient and Modern Fiction, instances of ‘交’jiao were largely replaced with ‘教’jiao.
‘由/繇’ you for the expression of the meanings ‘reason’, ‘from’, and ‘obedience’
Jinpingmei (two versions) and Water Margin (three versions) used the following characters, sunmmarized in Table 3.
‘由/繇’you for the expression of the meanings ‘reason’, ‘from’, and ‘obedience’.
a Jinpingmei; bWater Margin.
18. A 月娘見他罵大罵小，尋由原因頭兒，和人嚷閙上弔。（81-2491）
B 月娘見他罵大罵小，尋繇原因頭兒，和人嚷閙上弔。（17-81）
yuè niáng jiàn tā mà dà mà xiǎo, xún yóu(yuán yīn) tóu ér, hé rén rǎng nào shàng dìao
Yueniang saw that he insulted everyone, asking for a reason and shouting that he should hang himself. (81-2491)
Yueniang saw that he insulted everyone, asking for a reason and shouting that he should hang himself. (17-81)
19. A 西門慶由从正門而入。（39-1023）
B 西門慶繇从正門而入。（8-39）
xī mén qìng yóu (cóng) zhèng mén ér rù.
Ximen Qing entered from the main entrance. (39-1023)
Ximen Qing entered from the main entrance. (8-39)
20. A 眞個由听从他，我就不信了。（26-674）
B 眞箇繇听从他，我就不信了。（6-26）
zhēn gè yóu(tīng cóng) tā, wǒ jiù bú xìn le.
If obeying him, I do not believe it. (26-674)
If obeying him, I do not believe it. (6-26)
21. A 不問事由原因，又開五指，去閻婆臉上只一掌，打個滿天星。（21-21）
B 不問事由原因，又開五指，去閻婆臉上只一掌，打個滿天星。（21-21）
C 不問事繇原因，又開五指，去閻婆臉上只一掌，打箇滿天星。（25-20）
bú wèn shì yóu(yuán yīn), yòu kāi wǔ zhǐ, qù yán pó liǎn shàng zhī yī zhǎng, dǎ gè mǎn tiān xīng.
Regardless of the reason, he hit Yan Po on the face with his hand. (21-21)
Without asking for an explanation, he hit Yan Po on the face with his hand. (21-21)
Without asking for an explanation, he hit Yan Po on the face with his hand. (25-20)
22. A 今日到來經由从我村中過。（2-2）
B 今日到來經由从我村中過。（2-2）
C 今日倒來經繇从我村中過。（6-1）
jīn rì dào lái jīng yóu (cóng) wǒ cūn zhōng guò.
Today, he passed by my village. (2-2)
Today, he passed by my village. (2-2)
Today, he passed by my village. (6-1)
23. A 上下肩禅和子都不采他，由顺随他自睡了。（4-4）
B 上下肩禅和子都不采他，由顺随他自睡了。（4-4）
C 上下肩禪和子都不采他，繇顺随他自睡了。（8-3）
shàng xià jiān chán hé zǐ dōu bú cǎi tā, yóu(shùn suí) tā zì shuì le.
Chan Hezi did not talk to him either, and he himself fell asleep. (4-4)
Chan Hezi did not talk to him either, and he himself fell asleep. (4-4)
Chan Hezi did not talk to him either, and he himself fell asleep. (8-3)
Regarding ‘繇’you, 尔雅释水 Erya Shishui reads, ‘below 膝xi is 揭jie, above膝xi is涉she, and above 带dai is厉li’. Guo Pu notes that ‘繇’you, meant ‘from’. Erya used ‘繇vyou to explain ‘揭’jie, ‘涉’ she, ‘厉’li, and Guo Pu specially added notes to ‘繇’ you, indicating that this word may still have been accessible and easy to understand in the era of Erya. However, since the Jin Dynasty, it was no longer an easy-to-read word, hence the need for Guo Pu to add a commentary here. After the Jin dynasty, most books considered the word ‘繇’ you as an ancient word. For example, Classic Interpretation reads ‘繇you is an ancient word’. 正字通Zhengzitong reads ‘同文举要Tongwen Juyao derived from ‘田’ tian and ‘囗’yan, and is equivalent to the ancient words ‘
、
、
、
’. Further, note that Six Categories of Chinese Characters contains the two characters ‘
’ and ‘
’ which were taken as erroneous forms of ‘
’ and ‘囗’yan.
‘湏/須’xu for the expression of the meanings ‘must; need’, ‘will; must; would’, ‘but,’ ‘a little; a bit’, and ‘a moment; a short period of time’
The characters used in Jinpingmei (two versions), Water Margin (three versions), Qingpingshantang Scripts, Ancient and Modern Fiction, Jingshi Tongyan, and Amazing Stories used the following characters (summarized in Table 4).
‘湏/須’xu for the expression of the meanings ‘must; need’, ‘will; must; would’, ‘but’, ‘a little; a bit’, and ‘a moment; a short period of time’.
aJinpingmei; bWater Margin; cQingpingshantang Scripts; dAncient and Modern Fiction; e Jingshi; fAmazing Stories.
24. A 自古道：欲求生快活，湏必须下死工夫。（5-162）
B 自古道：欲求生快活，須必须下死工夫。（1-5）
zì gǔ dào: yù qiú shēng kuài huó, xū(bì xū) xià sǐ gōng fū.
As the ancient saying goes, for life and happiness, you must work hard. (5-162)
As the ancient saying goes, for life and happiness, you must work hard. (1-5)
25. A 你家武大郎知，湏必定連累我。（4-138）
B 你家武大郎知，須必定連累我。（1-4）
nǐ jiā wǔ dà láng zhī, xū(bì dìng) lián lèi wǒ.
If Wu Dalang gets to know, it will get me into trouble. (4-138)
If Wu Dalang gets to know, it will get me into trouble. (1-4)
26. A 王婆道：‘大官人先頭娘子湏转折也好。’（3-130）
B 王婆道：‘大官人先頭娘子須转折也好。’（1-3）
wáng pó dào: ‘dà guān rén xiān tóu niáng zǐ xū(zhuǎn zhé) yě hǎo.’
Mrs Wang said: ‘But it is okay to take advantage of her’. (3-130)
Mrs Wang said: ‘But it is okay to take advantage of her’. (1-3)
27. A 些湏少许微贐，表情而已。（36-962）
B 些須少许微贐，表情而已。（8-36）
xiē xǔ(shǎo xǔ) wēi jìn, biǎo qíng ér yǐ.
Slight rewards were enough, and it is shallow. (36-962)
Slight rewards were enough, and it is shallow. (8-36)
28. A 湏片刻臾大盤大碗吃了飯。（9-249）
xū(piàn kè) yú dà pán dà wǎn chī le fàn
He ate a lot in a short time. (9-249)
B 須片刻臾吃了飯。（2-9）
xū(piàn kè) yú chī le fàn.
He ate in a moment. (2-9)
29. A 男大湏必须婚，女大必嫁。（5-5）
B 男大湏必须婚，女大必嫁。（5-5）
C 男大須必须婚，女大必嫁。（9-4）
nán dà xū(bì xū) hūn, nǚ dà bì jià.
Reaching adulthood, both men and women must get married. (5-5)
Reaching adulthood, both men and women must get married. (9-4)
30. A 明日事露，湏必定連累下官。（59-59）
B 明日事露，湏必定連累下官。（59-59）
C 明日事露，須必定連累下官。（63-58）
míng rì shì lù, xū(bì ding) lián lèi xià guān.
If it is disclosed, it will definitely get me into trouble. (59-59)
If it is disclosed, it will definitely get me into trouble. (59-59)
If it is disclosed, it will definitely get me into trouble. (63-58)
31. A 隔墻湏转折有耳，窓外豈無人。（16-16）
B 隔墻湏转折有耳，窓外豈無人。（16-16）
C 隔牆須转折有耳，牕外豈無人。（20-15）
gé qiáng xū(zhuǎn zhé) yǒu ěr, chuāng wài qǐ wú rén.
Walls have ears, and there must be people outside. (16-16)
Walls have ears, and there must be people outside. (16-16)
Walls have ears, and there must be people outside. (20-15)
32. A 湏片刻臾之間，只見戴宗舒眉展眼，便扒起來。（39-39）
B 湏片刻臾之間，只見戴宗舒眉展眼，便扒起來。（39-39）
C 須片刻臾之間，只見戴宗舒眉展眼，便爬起來。（43-38）
xū(piàn kè) yú zhī jiān, zhī jiàn dài zōng shū méi zhǎn yǎn, biàn bā qǐ lái.
In a short period of time, Dai Zong refreshed himself, and began to pick it up. (39-39)
In a short period of time, Dai Zong refreshed himself, and began to pick it up. (43-38)
33. A 我你旣爲夫婦，不湏必须如此。（3-刎颈鸳鸯会）
B2 我你旣爲夫婦，不須必须如此。（38-蒋淑真刎颈鸳鸯会）
wǒ nǐ jì wèi fū fù, bú xū(bì xū) rú cǐ. (3-wěn jǐng yuān yāng huì)
Since we are spouses, it does not have to be this way. (3-Wenjingyuanyanghui)
Since we are spouses, it does not have to be like this. (38-Jiang Shuzhen Wenjingyuanyanghui)
34. A 非(飛)蛾投火身湏必定䘮，蝙蝠投竿命必傾。（雨窗集上-错认尸）
fēi é tóu huǒ shēn xū(bì dìng) sàng, biān fú tóu gān mìng bì qīng. (yǔ chuāng jí shàng -cuò rèn shī)
B2 飛蛾撲火身須必定䘮，蝙蝠投竿命必傾。（33-乔彦杰一妾破家）
fēi é pū huǒ shēn xū(bì dìng) sàng, biān fú tóu gān mìng bì qīng.(33-qiáo yàn jié yī qiè pò jiā)
The flying moth darting into the fire will definitely die, and the bat will die if it knocks the rod. (Yuchuang Set I–Cuorenshi)
The flying moth darting into the fire will definitely die, and the bat will die if it knocks the rod. (33-Qiao Yanjie, Qipojia)
35. A 湏片刻臾，衆侍女簇擁一美女至前。（欹枕集下-李元吴江救朱蛇）
B1 須片刻臾，衆侍女簇擁一美女至前。（34-李公子救蛇获称心）
xū(piàn kè) yú, zhōng shì nǚ cù yōng yī měi nǚ zhì qián. (yī zhěn jí xià -lǐ yuán wú jiāng jiù zhū shé)
xū(piàn kè) yú, zhōng shì nǚ cù yōng yī měi nǚ zhì qián. (34-lǐ gōng zǐ jiù shé huò chēng xīn)
After a while, the house cleaners surrounded a beauty. (Qizhen Set II- Li Yuan and Wu Jiang Saves the Snake)
After a while, the house cleaners surrounded a beauty. (34 – Mr. Li Wins the Heart after Saving the Snake)
‘須’ xu and ‘湏’ xu are a pair of elegant and popular characters. Zhengzitong cites 徐铉Xu Xuan in saying that ‘須xu’ originally meant beard as in 须鬓 and it was wrong to replace with water component in popular books. Popular form of xu 湏 with water component is not correct. According to Sushukanwu 俗书刊误 Volume I, The popular form of 须 is written as 湏, which is incorrect. Regarding the use of this elegant/popular pair, our survey shows that in the 词话Ci Hua version of Jinpingmei, the two characters were apparently interchangeable. In 崇祯Chong Zhen’s version, although 湏xu was sometimes used, it was more inclined to use 須xu to express ‘moment’ and ‘a short period of time’ when compared with Ci Hua’s version. In Rong Yutang’s and Tian Qi’s versions (first 71 chapters) of Water Margin, the characters were used interchangeably, while 須xu was the form of choice in Guan Huatang’s version. In the Qingpingshantang Scripts, both characters were used interchangeably. The corresponding articles in Ancient and Modern Fiction, Jingshi Tongyan, and Amazing Stories all used 須xu.
For the expression of the meanings ‘decoration’, ‘dressing; decoration’, etc.
Jinpingmei (two versions), Water Margin (three versions), Qingpingshantang Scripts and Jingshi Tongyan employed the following characters, summarized in Table 5.
For the expression of the meanings ‘decoration’, ‘dressing; decoration’, etc.
aJinpingmei; bWater Margin; cQingpingshantang Scripts; dJingshi.
Examples from Jinpingmei
36. A 今日往廟上去，替你置了些首餙饰物珠翠衣服之類。（6-178）
B 今日往廟上去，替你置了些首飾饰物珠翠衣服之類。（2-6）
jīn rì wǎng miào shàng qù, tì nǐ zhì le xiē shǒu shì(shì wù) zhū cuì yī fú zhī lèi. (6-178)
Today, I went to the temple and bought some accessories, such as beaded clothes. (6-178)
Today, I went to the temple and bought some accessories, such as beaded clothes. (2-6)
37. A 性明敏，善機变，會粧飾打扮。（22-574）
B 性明敏，善機变，會粧飾打扮。（5-22）
xìng míng mǐn, shàn jī biàn, huì zhuāng shì(dǎ bàn).
Sensitive, smart, and well dressed up. (22-574)
Sensitive, smart, and well dressed up. (5-22)
Examples from Water Margin
38. A 石秀便把那婦人頭面首飾饰物衣服都剥了。（46-46）
B 石秀便把那婦人頭面首飾饰物衣服都剥了。（46-46）
C 石秀便把那婦人頭面首餙饰物衣服都剥了。（50-45）
shí xiù biàn bǎ nà fù rén tóu miàn shǒu shì(shì wù) yī fú dōu bāo le.
Shi Xiu stripped off the woman’s head ornaments. (46-46)
Shi Xiu stripped the woman’s head ornaments. (50-45)
Examples from Qingpingshantang Scripts and Jingshi Tongyan
39. A 只說道小二偷了我家首飾饰物物件，夜間迯走了。（雨窗集上-错认尸）
zhī shuō dào xiǎo èr tōu le wǒ jiā shǒu shì(shì wù) wù jiàn, yè jiān táo zǒu le. (yǔ chuāng jí shàng-cuò rèn shī)
It was just said that Xiao Er stole my accessories and objects and slipped away at night. (Yuchuang SetⅠ- Cuorenshi)
B2 只說道小二偷了我家首餙饰物物件，夜間逃走了。（33-乔彦杰一妾破家）
zhī shuō dào xiǎo èr tōu le wǒ jiā shǒu shì(shì wù) wù jiàn, yè jiān táo zǒu le. (33-qiáo yàn jié yī qiè pò jiā)
It was just said that Xiao Er stole my accessories and objects and slipped away at night (33-Qiao Yanjie-Qipojia)
‘饰’shi and ‘餙’shi are a pair of elegant and popular characters. Jiao Hong, in the Ming Dynasty work Sushukanwu writes: ‘The popular form of ‘饰’shi is ‘餙’shi. The Grand Chinese Dictionary also quotes this sentence. Regarding the use of this elegant/popular pair, our survey shows that in 词话Ci Hua’s version of Jinpingmei, both characters were used interchangeably, while 崇祯Chong Zhen’s version largely replaces ‘餙’shi with ‘饰’shi. In 容与堂 Rong Yutang’s and Tian Qi’s versions (first 71 chapters) of Water Margin, both characters were used interchangeably, while 贯华堂Guan Huatang’s version largely changes ‘饰’shi into ‘餙’shi. In the Qingpingshantang Scripts, both characters were used interchangeably. The corresponding articles in Jingshi Tongyan largely change ‘饰’shi into ‘餙’shi.
To express the meaning of ‘body’
Jinpingmei (two editions), Water Margin (three editions), Journey to the West (two editions), Qingpingshantang Scripts, Ancient and Modern Fiction, Jingshi Tongyan, and Amazing Stories used the following characters, summarized in Table 6.
To express the meaning of ‘body’.
aJinpingmei; bWater Margin; cJourney to the West; dQingpingshantang Scripts; eAncient and Modern Fiction; fJingshi; gAmazing Stories.
Examples from Jinpingmei
40. A 王姑子揭開被，看李瓶兒身上肌軆都瘦的沒了。（62-1720）
B 王姑子揭開被，看李瓶兒身上肌體都瘦的沒了。（13-62）
wáng gū zǐ jiē kāi bèi, kàn lǐ píng ér shēn shàng jī tī dōu shòu de méi le. (62-1 720) / ( 13-62)
Wang Guzi opened the quilt and saw that Li Ping was bony. (62-1720)/(13-62)
41. A 那胡僧躰貌從容，氣也不喘。（第49回， P1299）
B 那胡僧體貌從容，氣也不喘。（卷十，第49回）
nà hú sēng tī mào cóng róng, qì yě bú chuǎn. (dì 49huí, P1299) / (juàn shí, dì 49huí)
That Hu Seng looked relaxed and calm. (Chapter 49, P1299) /(Chapter 49, Volume 10)
42. A 娘子若服了我的藥，必然貴体全安。（17-443）
B 娘子若服了我的藥，必然貴體全安。（4-17）
niáng zǐ ruò fú le wǒ de yào, bì rán guì tǐ quán ān.
If you took my medicine, you must be wholesome. (17-443)/(4-17)
Examples from Water Margin
43. A 誰想，寫了三千貫文書，虗錢實契，要了奴家身軆。(3-3)
B 誰想，寫了三千貫文書，虗錢實契，要了奴家身軆。(3-3)
C 誰想，寫了三千貫文書，虚錢實契，要了奴家身體。(7-2)
shuí xiǎng, xiě le sān qiān guàn wén shū, xū qián shí qì, yào le nú jiā shēn tī.
Whoever could think that for the three thousand guan of money and the actual deed, he accepted me. (3-3)
Whoever could think that for the three thousand guan of money and the actual deed, he accepted me. (7-2)
44. A 楊志口裡只是叫苦，軟了身体，扎掙不起。 (卷十六，第16回)
B 楊志口裡只是叫苦，軟了身體，扎掙不起。（卷十六，第16回）
yáng zhì kǒu lǐ zhī shì jiào kǔ, ruǎn le shēn tǐ, zhā zhèng bú qǐ.(juàn shí liù, dì 16huí)
Yang Zhi complained endlessly about the hardships, his body tired, and unable to continue. (Chapter 16, Vol. 16)
C 楊志口裏只是叫苦，軟了身體，扎掙不起。（卷二十，第15回）
yáng zhì kǒu lǐ zhī shì jiào kǔ, ruǎn le shēn tǐ, zhā zhèng bú qǐ. (juàn èr shí, dì 15huí)
Yang Zhi complained endlessly about the hardships, his body tired, and unable to continue. (Chapter 15, Vol. 20)
Examples from Journey to the West
45. A 去时凢骨凢胎重，得道身輕体亦輕。(1-2)
B 去时凢骨凢胎重，淂道身輕體亦輕。(1-2)
qù shí fán gǔ fán tāi zhòng, dé dào shēn qīng tǐ yì qīng. (1-2)
One is burdened with bones and body on the way, but will be light and relaxed after obtaining the Scripts. (1-2)
Examples from Qingpingshantang Scripts, Ancient and Modern Fiction, and Jingshi Tongyan
46. A 二婦人見洪三已招，驚得魂不付体。（雨窗集上-错认尸）
B2 二婦人見洪三已招，驚得魂不附體。（33-乔彦杰一妾破家）
The two women saw that Hong San had already pleaded guilty, and were overwhelmed with surprise and fear. (Yuchuang Set I-Cuorenshi)/ (33-Qiao Yanjie-Qipojia)
47. A 金眼黄口，赭身錦鱗，躰如珊瑚之狀。（欹枕集下-李元吴江救朱蛇）
B1 金眼黃口，赭身錦鱗，體如珊瑚之狀。（34-李公子救蛇获称心）
jīn yǎn huáng kǒu, zhě shēn jǐn lín, tī rú shān hú zhī zhuàng.(yī zhěn jí xià -lǐ yuán wú jiāng jiù zhū shé)/(34-lǐ gōng zǐ jiù shé huò chēng xīn)
Golden eyes, yellow mouth, brown body like coral. (Qizhen Set I-Li Yuan Saves the Snake in Wu Jiang)/(34 - Li Gongzi Wins the Heart for Saving the Snake)
‘體’ti, ‘軆’ti, ‘躰’ti, and ‘体’ti are a set of elegant and popular characters. Zhengzitong notes: ‘軆 ti is the popular form of 體ti. 躰ti is a popular character form of 體ti. 躰ti is a popular form of character, from the elegant form 體ti. 体ti, the simple form in popular books is 体ti, which is not correct’. Regarding the use of this set of elegant/popular characters, our survey shows that in 词话 Ci Hua’s version of Jinpingmei, ‘軆’, ‘體’, ‘躰’ and ‘体’ were used, while in 崇祯Chong Zhen’s version, ‘體’, ‘体’ and ‘骵’ were used. However, our data shows that 崇祯 Chong Zhen’s version was more inclined to use ‘體’ than 词话Ci Hua’s version. In 容与堂Rong Yutang’s version (first 71 chapters) of Water Margin where ‘軆’ or ‘体’ was used, 天启Tian Qi’s version was identical, except for certain instances of ‘體’, while Guan Huatang’s version largely uses ‘體’. For Journey to the West where ‘体’ was used in 杨闵斋Yang Minzhai’s version, 世德堂Shi Detang’s version uses ‘體’. Qingpingshantang Scripts uses both the popular characters ‘体’ and ‘躰’ and the elegant form ‘體’. The corresponding articles in Ancient and Modern Fiction, Jingshi Tongyan, and Amazing Stories all use ‘體’.
Orthographic trends reflected in the variant texts and their causes
Elegant and popular orthographic trends
In the use of ‘吃（喫）/乞’, ‘教/交’, ‘繇/由’, ‘須/湏’, ‘飾/餙’ and ‘體/軆/躰/骵/体’, different versions of literary texts or variant texts are manifested in the differences in the use of ‘乞’, ‘交’, ‘由’, ‘湏’, ‘餙’, and ‘軆/躰/体’ and ‘吃（喫）’, ‘教’, ‘繇’, ‘須’, ‘飾’, and ‘體’. On the basis of these differences, 词话Ci Hua’s version of Jinpingmei, 容与堂Rong Yutang’s and 天启Tian Qi’s versions of Water Margin, 杨闵斋Yang Minzhai’s version of Journey to the West and Qingpingshantang Scripts can be roughly classified into one category (Category A), while 崇祯Chong Zhen’s version of Jinpingmei, 贯华堂Guan Huatang’s version of Water Margin, 世德堂 Shi Detang’s version of Journey to the West, Ancient and Modern Fiction, Jingshi Tongyan, and Amazing Stories can be classified as a second category (Category B). From the perspective of tongjia words and elegant versus popular forms, more tongjia words and popular characters were found in the works comprising Category A, with fewer occurrences in Category B. On the whole, in the variant texts of Categories A and B, some of the words used in Category A, such as ‘由’, ‘餙’, ‘軆’, ‘躰’, and ‘体’, do not appear in Shuowen, whereas the majority of the words used in Category B can be found in说文 Shuowen, for example ‘喫’, regarding which Koubu of Shuowen reads, ‘Chi means eating’. Regarding ‘教’jiao, Pubu of Shuowen reads, ‘The subordinates will follow the deeds of the superiors’; regarding ‘繇’you, mianbu of Shuowen reads, ‘you, to follow’: concerning ‘須’xu, Shuibu of Shuowen reads, ‘xu means the hair on the face’; concerning ‘飾’ shi, Shibu of Shuowen notes, ‘shi means decoration’; regarding ‘體’ti, Gubu of Shuowen reads, ‘there are altogether 12 categories of ti’. Shuowen played a crucial role in the orthographic method of the Ming Dynasty. Dong (2012: 34, 38, and 45) takes Sushukanwu as a basis from which to examine the orthographic method of the Ming Dynasty, and points out that the ‘most elegant characters of Sushukanwu were adapted from either seal characters or huoti in Shuowen. Characters were based on the forms presented in Shuowen with firm opposition to the destruction of original character forms and their underlying rationale. Thus, the criterion of elegance was mainly based on whether or not a character conformed to one of the “Six Categories of Chinese Characters”.’ Because of the limitations of the era and the orthographic theory of the time, the phenomenon of ‘universal conservation’ in the ancient script was manifested in Sushukanwu, and was difficult to avoid even in Zhengzitong. It can be seen that the orthographic trends in Category B works are consistent with the ‘correctness’ view of orthography in the Ming Dynasty.
Comparing the use of words in Chinese textbooks in the Ming Dynasty reveals even more clearly the differences in character selection between the works in Categories A and B. Chinese textbooks took teaching people basic literacy as their primary function, and pursued a goal of orthographic standardization. As such, they can be taken as a model for word use in the society of the time. Taking the Ming Dynasty Chinese textbooks 翻译老乞大Translation Laoqida (c. 1507–1517), 训世评话Xunshi Pinghua, and 忠义直解 Zhongyi Zhiyan 2 as examples, to express ‘eating’ and ‘passive’, these three textbooks used ‘喫’ chi exclusively, and not ‘吃’ chi or ‘乞’qi; for causative use, Translation Laoqida and Xunshi Pinghua used only ‘教’ and not ‘交’, and there were 30 cases of ‘教’ and only two of ‘叫’ in Zhongyi Zhiyan. To express ‘must’, the three textbooks only used ‘須’, not ‘湏’; to express ‘furnishings’, ‘dressing and decoration’, only ‘飾’ was used for ‘decoration’ rather than ‘餙’; to express ‘body’, Shunshi Pinghua and Zhongyi Zhiyan used only ‘體’. The complete findings are summarized in Table 7.
Comparing the use of words in Chinese textbooks in the Ming Dynasty, revealing even more clearly the differences in character selection between the works in Categories A and B.
aXunshi Pinghua; bZhongyi Zhiyan.
Word selection in Category B works was closer to that of Chinese textbooks than those in Category A. This once again proved these works’ tendency towards standardization in their orthography, contrasting sharply with the trend towards popular orthographic choices in the works of Category A.
Market-based book creation and production
The circulation of books as commodities in the marketplace must depend on the realization of supply and demand. Supply links include creators’ creation of texts, booksellers’ production and sales, and ultimately purchases by consumers. In this process, the intellectual and cultural level of the creator, and the willingness of the bookseller to produce and sell, determine the final landscape of the book, including its subject, content, language, text, illustrations, and appearance. Consumers can often influence creators and booksellers to create and produce different books that meet their reading needs. Therefore, compared with the editions and texts of Category A, those of Category B tend more toward elegance; this element of the product itself is in fact reflecting the creators, booksellers and the target consumer groups behind the works of this category, as discussed in the following.
First, the creators of Category B texts possess a certain level of knowledge. Taking Chong Zhen’s version of Jinpingmei as an example, Zheng (1998: 239) pointed out long ago that Ci Hua’s version ‘contained many Shandong dialect elements, which were not well understood by southerners, while Chong Zhen’s version was plain Mandarin. We can conclude that Chong Zhen’s version was indeed pruned by unknown Hangzhou literati.’ Fu (2015: 345–346) points out that:
Ci Hua’s version of Jinpingmei was a written record of words spoken by the narrator, and adheres to the popular cultural form of oral storytelling; by contrast, Chong Zhen’s version underwent scholarly editing, aimed towards a reading audience, assuming a more literate cultural form. [...] Ci Hua’s version was a faithful recording, word for word, from spoken language. Only the sounds were recorded, without giving attention to the interpretation of those sounds. Moreover, there was no requirement for consistency among different characters representing the same sound, which was very different from the literati’s approach to word use. Chong Zhen’s version adheres to the literati’s orthographic philosophy of seeking the correct word and seeking consistency.
From Fu’s study, one can see the unified relationship between creation purpose, creator, and orthographic strategy. That is, the purpose of Ci Hua’s version was to serve the narrator, only requiring faithful recording of the content without requiring the standardized use of characters. The speaker, based on his experience, is able to fulfil the requirement of reproducing the content, but because of his limited knowledge and cultural sophistication, neither seeks nor is able to achieve standardization in the use of words. The purpose of Chong Zhen’s creation was to serve as a text for reading, resulting in higher orthographic demands: literati not only consciously desire consistency in orthography, they are also equipped with the corresponding intellectual and cultural knowledge to truly achieve such a standardization.
Second, booksellers behind Category B texts have the will to produce and sell high-quality books. As Zhang (2014: 210) points out:
After Wanli, many bookstores had published such cumulative non-original novels as The Romance of the Three Kingdoms. The audience had more choices and the market competition had intensified. If bookshop owners had to edit their own books, they would likely be eliminated by the highly competitive market. Thus, bookshop owners of the time invited literati and scholars to correct, add phonetic notation or commentary to novels such as Romance of the Three Kingdoms, Water Margin, and Journey to the West.
Although this historical phenomenon cannot directly prove that the booksellers of Category B had the will to produce and sell high-quality books, it does show that the booksellers after the Wanli period paid more attention to the reading experience of readers, working to optimize the content, language, and character forms of these books. Based on this, we can infer that the standardization of Category B texts was a strategy adopted by booksellers to improve the quality of books.
Third, the consumers targeted by Category B texts were also literati bureaucrats of a certain intellectual level. This is particularly evident in the use of the word ‘繇’ in Chong Zhen’s version of Jinpingmei and Guan Huatang’s version of Water Margin. The word ‘繇’ had already needed explanatory notes in the Jin dynasty. After the Jin dynasty, the classic essays Classic Interpretation and Zhengzitong also referred to the word as an ancient word, using ‘繇’ instead of ‘由’. Obviously, it increased the difficulty for public reading. It did not meet the reading needs of the general public for simple and understandable popular literature. Or perhaps the creators had even consciously sought to exclude the streetwise class of consumers of a lower cultural level. Tu (2013) points out that after the Jiajing period in the Ming Dynasty, the stories of Water Margin were not only highly popular among ordinary citizens, but were also deeply favored by the literati class, with the preface to the detailed edition being clearly aimed at the cultural elite. Li Zhi wrote the preface for Rong Yutang’s version of Water Margin, describing it as ‘a book of loyalty and righteousness’, which must be read by ‘nationals’, ‘senior ministers’, ‘military post holders’, and ‘government officials’; Yuan Wuya’s version had ‘bookmarked words and sounds’ and conducted a large number of revisions to Water Margin, more clearly targeted at groups with a higher level of cultural knowledge compared with Rong Yutang’s version; Guan Huatang’s version deleted a large number of four- or six-character phrases (四六语 siliuyu) that were considered ‘overly colloquial’, contained no pictures, and consisted of 70 chapters in total. It ignored the desire of readers for completeness and for the plots and storylines they were so familiar with. The prefaces of volumes 1 to 4 of the novel’s main body all demand a high level of knowledge, as opposed to being an introduction for those with lower levels of cultural refinement. It is thus evident that Guan Huatang’s version was more progressive in its refinement and was conspicuous in regarding the class of scholars as its target readership. This provides corroboration for our inference.
Overall, in the popular literature surveyed, the orthographic choices of Category B texts tended towards elegance, a fact inseparable from the standardized orthographic strategy behind their creation and production. Behind this orthographic strategy, in turn, were the driving forces of satisfying readers, meeting booksellers’ need for profits in a fiercely competitive market, and the targeting of literati as the primary consumer group. The creators’ high intellectual level and their awareness of standardized character use provided objective and subjective guarantees for the realization of such orthographic strategies, thus creating the distinction in terms of elegance versus popularity of orthography when compared with Category A texts and reflected in the wide range of variant written forms seen in the surveyed texts. Aside from this, from the point of view of a particular novel’s social status, whether it was the literati’s participation in the creation, correction, or review of Category B texts, or these texts’ positioning of the literati as their target consumer group, both these phenomena reflect the improvement in social status of certain novels in the Ming Dynasty. Different novels diverged based on their different readerships, thus forming a dichotomy between novels circulating in the upper classes of society and those popular among the commoners.
Conclusions
1. This paper is based on a survey of two versions of Jinpingmei in the Ming Dynasty, three editions of Water Margin, two editions of Journey to the West, and the related variant texts of Qingpingshantang Scripts. Survey results show that, in regard to the use of six sets of elegant/popular characters, Ci Hua’s version of Jinpingmei, Rong Yutang’s version of Water Margin, Tian Qi’s version of Journey to the West, and Yang Minzhai’s version of Qingpingshantang Scripts (Category A texts) used ‘乞’, ‘交’, ‘由’, ‘湏’, ‘餙’ and ‘軆/躰/体’, while Chong Zhen’s version of Jinpingmei, Guan Huatang’s version of Water Margin, Shi Detang’s version of Journey to the West, Ancient and Modern Fictions, Jingshi Tongyan, and Amazing Stories (Category B texts) used ‘吃（喫）’, ‘教’, ‘繇’, ‘須’, ‘飾’, and ‘體’. In regard to these six sets of character variants, Category A works used Tongjia characters and popular characters, while Category B works used more original and elegant characters, approaching Chinese textbooks such as Translation Laoqida, Xunshi Pinghua, and Zhongyi Zhiyan in their pursuit of orthographic standardization, thus revealing a distinction in the use of elegant and popular characters between the two categories of popular literature.
2. Compared with the texts of Category A, the direct cause of the elegant tendency in the orthography of Category B works was the standardized orthographic strategy. Creators with a high level of intellect creating books to be read, booksellers enhancing the quality of books by improving the degree of orthographic standardization with the aim of making greater profits amid stiff market competition, and targeting a culturally sophisticated literati as consumers and readers, were important factors that stimulated, drove, and guaranteed the implementation of this orthographic strategy. Both the participation of literati and scholar-bureaucrats in books’ creation and the targeting in turn of literati and scholar-bureaucrats as consumers show the improvement in social status of certain novels in the Ming Dynasty. This also shows that the distinction between elegant and popular texts was closely related to the circulation of works among various social strata. Therefore, this is not only a linguistic and philological issue, but also a sociological issue.
3. That being said, many Tongjia characters and popular characters were still present in the texts of Category B, and there were even variants in which Category A texts employed original and elegant charac-ters while corresponding Category B texts used borrowed and popular characters. For example, to express ‘a moment, a short period of time’, Chong Zhen’s version of Jinpingmei tended more to use the popular word ‘湏’ compared with Ci Hua’s version; to express ‘decoration’, Guan Huatang’s version of Water Margin tended to use the popular word ‘餙’ more than Rong Yutang and Tian Qi’s versions, while Jingshi Tongyan tended to use the popular word ‘餙’ more than Qingpingshantang Scripts. Such phenomena are quite normal. On the one hand, at that time society had fewer word conventions for popular literature. Although there were strict written policies at higher levels, these were mainly directed at official documents. On the other hand, the standardization of written language was a historical process that could not be completed overnight.
Footnotes
1. Versions of Jinpingmei:
A. Complete Edition of Ci Hua’s version of Jinpingmei. (1982) [《全本金瓶梅词话》词话本] Ci Hua’s version, Hong Kong: Taiping Publishing House.
B. Newly Engraved and Embroidered Images Criticism of Jinpingmei. 20 volumes. [《新刻绣像批评金瓶梅》二十卷,崇祯本 ] Chong Zhen’s version, Ming Dynasty Edition, Chinese reliable texts full text image database at the Institute of Oriental Culture, University of Tokyo, Japan
Versions of Water Margin:
A. Rong Yutang Engraved Water Margin of Ming Dynasty. (1973) [《明容与堂刻水浒传》] Engraved in Hangzhou about 30 years of Wanli of Ming Dynasty, Shanghai People’s Publishing House.
B. Newly Engraved Image of the Water Margin. [《新刻全像水浒传》] Engraved by Tian Qi of Ming Dynasty, the full comparative text of the Basic Chinese Library of Ancient Books, version 2
C. The Fifth Talent Book Shi Naian’s Water Margin, 75 Volumes, [《第五才子书施耐庵水浒传七十五卷》，贯华堂刻本]. In: Chong Zhen Fourteenth Year by Guan Huatang, Chinese reliable texts full text image database at the Institute of Oriental Culture, University of Tokyo, Japan.
Versions of Journey to the West:
A. Newly Engraved Journey to the West. [《新镌全像西游记传》明书林杨闽斋刊本] Yang Minzhai’s version in Ming Dynasty, the full comparative text of the Basic Chinese Library of Ancient Books, version 1.
B. Newly Engraved Official Words of Journey to the West. [《新刻出像官板大字西游记》明金陵世德堂本] Shi Detang’s version of Ming Jinling, the full comparative text of the Basic Chinese Library of Ancient Books, version 2.
Versions of Qingpingshantang Scripts, Ancient and Modern Fiction, Jingshi Tongyan, and Amazing Stories
A. Fifteen Qingpingshantang Scripts. [《清平山堂话本残十五种》] The 1929 ancient and modern photocopy book printing society with the Japanese cabinet library to store the copy of the Jiajing Hong Pian publication, and Chinese reliable texts full text image database at the Institute of Oriental Culture, University of Tokyo, Japan; Twevlve Qingpingshantang Scripts II, photocopy in Tianyi Pavillion in Ming Jiajing in Ma County in 1934, the Basic Chinese Library of Ancient Books, original.
B1 Ancient and Modern Fiction. 40 volumes. [《古今小说》（四十卷）] The edition of Tian Xuzhai of Ming Dynasty, the Basic Chinese Library of Ancient Books, original.
B2 Jingshi Tongyan. 40 volumes. [《警世通言》（四十卷）] Engraved version in the fourth years of Ming Tianqi, the Basic Chinese Library of Ancient Books, original.
B3 Amazing Stories. 40 volumes. [《拍案惊奇》（四十卷）] Engraved version of Shang Youtang in Ming Chongzhen
2. Translation Laoqida [《翻译老乞大》] A photocopy of the Asian Culture Society, originally published between 1507 and 1517.
Xunshi Pinghu [《训世评话》] 1998 Edition, Seoul University.
Zhongyi Zhiyan [《忠义直言》] Photocopy of the ‘Year of Gengzi in Korea’ (2013) Chongqing Southwest China Normal University Press and Beijing People’s Publishing House.
a. Xunshi Pinghu [《训世评话》] 1998 Edition, “thae hak sa” Seoul.
b. Zhongyi Zhiyan [《忠义直言》] Photocopy of the ‘Year of Gengzi in Korea’ (2013) Chongqing Southwest China Normal University Press and Beijing People’s Publishing House.
3. Jiang and Cao (2005: 394) point out the existence of the view that the passive use of ‘吃’ only emerged in the Song Dynasty. The reason was that sentences involving an agent were taken as the defining standard for the emergence of ‘吃（喫、乞）’ constructions, and such cases were rare before the Song Dynasty. In fact, the presence of an agent is not a necessary condition (see the ‘被’ construction). They also point out that the following three cases – ‘喫掴’ chiguai ‘TRANSLATION’ (Yanzi Fu, Dunhuang Manuscripts), ‘喫打骂无休’ chida ma wu xiu ‘scolded relentlessly’ (Liu Zhiyuan Zhugongdiao) and ‘喫拿’ china ‘TRANSLATION’ (Water Margin, Chapter 58) can all be analyzed as passives. 
divides the passive into three types: ‘auxiliary + verb’, ‘prep + object + verb’, and ‘prep + object + 所suo + verb’. Among them, ‘auxiliary + verb’ is ‘the direct combination of a passive preposition with a predicate verb’. In line with the opinions of the above scholars, this article regards ‘吃（喫、乞）+ verb’ as one type of passive sentence.