Cultural diplomacy as an emergent and uneven process: The cultural olympiad in the veneto dolomites ahead of Milano cortina 2026

Abstract

This article examines the Cultural Olympiad of the Milano Cortina 2026 Winter Olympic Games, focusing on Belluno, a peripheral Alpine province and UNESCO World Heritage site. Combining territorial mapping, policy analysis, and a stakeholder survey, the study identifies fragmented coordination and limited funding despite strong grassroots cultural capacity. More than half of initiatives are led by community-based organisations, yet only 35% of stakeholders plan new Olympiad-related activities. The findings show that cultural diplomacy does not emerge as a predefined outcome but as an uneven process shaped by governance, local capacities, and the ability to engage external audiences. Diplomatic functions remain indirect and weakly institutionalised, largely embedded in territorial promotion. The article contributes to debates on subnational cultural diplomacy by analysing Cultural Olympiads as contexts where its conditions and limits become visible.

Keywords

cultural diplomacy mega-events cultural governance grassroots initiatives peripheral and mountain regions Development Environmental Issues Z32 – Tourism and Development Z38 – Policy Regulation and Government International Policy Coordination (Culture Tourism Sport)

Introduction

Mega-events are increasingly used as instruments of cultural diplomacy and international cultural relations. Global visibility conveys cultural narratives, identities, and values to international audiences. Through these processes, states and other actors pursue symbolic recognition and legitimacy within the international arena (Umińska-Woroniecka, 2016). The Olympic Games have long served diplomatic functions, including shaping political identity and international reputation (Trunkos and Heere, 2017). Mega-events, and the Olympic Games in particular, have therefore long been framed as potential instruments of cultural diplomacy (Grix and Houlihan, 2014), although the conditions under which this function materialises remain insufficiently examined. However, the cultural policy and management dimensions of this diplomatic role remain weakly institutionalised and underexplored, particularly in planning and regional studies, where attention has focused more strongly on urban, infrastructural, and governance outcomes.

Cultural diplomacy is conceptualised here as a set of practices through which public, private, and intermediary actors mobilise culture to engage external audiences and position themselves within international cultural relations. It is analysed as a multi-scalar, practice-based process unfolding through governance arrangements, cultural programming, and institutional interaction, bridging state-centred and multi-actor perspectives.

This article examines the Milano Cortina 2026 Winter Olympic Games through the Cultural Olympiad, conceived as an arena where cultural diplomacy and cultural governance intersect within a decentralised mega-event framework. Rather than assuming the Cultural Olympiad to be inherently diplomatic, the analysis investigates when and how such functions emerge within its organisation and governance, and how territorial conditions shape these processes.

Although culture and the arts have long been associated with the Olympic Movement, their institutional position remains ambiguous. The Cultural Olympiad has been a formal component of the Games since Barcelona 1992, yet its organisation is only partially codified, with limited regulation and uneven implementation across host contexts (García, 2004, 2008). Recent experiences, such as Paris 2024, suggest that Olympic cultural programming continues to face challenges in visibility and effectiveness as a potential instrument of cultural diplomacy (García, 2024).

These ambiguities are mirrored in academic research. Compared with extensive work on the economic, spatial and social impacts, studies on the Cultural Olympiad remain scarce and fragmented (Mair et al., 2021). Limited attention has been given to the preparation phase, multilevel governance, and links with cultural policy at local and regional scales. The role of the Cultural Olympiad as a form of cultural diplomacy beyond state-led exchange remains underexplored.

This gap is also conceptual. Classical approaches define cultural diplomacy as a state-led exchange linked to foreign policy (Cummings, 2003; Mark, 2009), while more recent perspectives emphasise its multi-actor and multi-scalar nature (UNESCO, 2022). Mega-events sit at the intersection of these perspectives, combining global visibility with territorial embeddedness.

Building on this, the article examines how cultural diplomacy is articulated at subnational and local levels, particularly in decentralised contexts. It is analysed through three dimensions: (i) actors, referring to the involvement of institutions and cultural intermediaries engaged in outward-oriented activities; (ii) scale, capturing how initiatives connect local contexts to national and international arenas; (iii) practices, referring to actions such as programming, partnerships, and narrative framing that contribute to external visibility. In this framework, cultural diplomacy is distinguished from cultural policy and cultural cooperation. While cultural policy concerns the organisation and support of cultural activities, and cultural cooperation refers to collaborative exchanges, cultural diplomacy focuses on activities oriented towards external audiences and international or extra-local visibility. Not all cultural activities are therefore considered instances of cultural diplomacy, but only those with such outward orientation.

From this perspective, the Cultural Olympiad provides a relevant empirical setting. Its flexibility and weakly codified nature allow host territories discretion in defining objectives, involving actors, and shaping narratives (García, 2008, 2012).

In the case of Milano Cortina 2026, the bid dossier emphasises diversity, regional identities, sport culture, peace, and intercultural dialogue (Milano Cortina, 2026, 2019). In Cortina and the Veneto Dolomites, this translates into an image combining nature, sport and culture, positioning the Cultural Olympiad as a tool of internal identity consolidation and external visibility.

Against this background, the article presents an ex ante analysis of Milano Cortina 2026, focusing on Belluno. As a peripheral mountain context with dense cultural networks but limited institutional capacity, it provides a suitable setting to examine how cultural diplomacy emerges in decentralised contexts.

The study examines the socio-economic and cultural fabric of Belluno, stakeholder perceptions, and governance dynamics shaping cultural diplomacy within the Cultural Olympiad.

Methodologically, the study employs a mixed-methods approach combining territorial mapping, statistical analysis, and qualitative research, including stakeholder surveys, personal interviews, and workshops. It provides an ex ante perspective on how cultural diplomacy is translated into programmes and institutional arrangements. In doing so, it contributes to debates on institutionalisation of cultural diplomacy (Ang et al., 2015), the role of subnational actors and heritage sites (Çağlar, 2021; Isar and Triandafyllidou, 2021) and the porous boundaries between cultural diplomacy, cooperation and local cultural policy (Ang et al., 2015). At the same time, it engages with recent scholarship that highlights the diversification of actors and scales in contemporary cultural diplomacy beyond state-centric paradigms (Grincheva, 2024), as well as analyses demonstrating how culture is strategically mobilised within broader political frameworks (Kolokytha, 2019).

The remainder of the article reviews the literature, outlines the methodology, presents the empirical findings, and concludes with implications for mega-event design and subnational cultural diplomacy.

Cultural diplomacy and mega-events: Towards an integrated perspective

Cultural diplomacy and mega-event scholarship have largely developed as separate fields. This separation has constrained the understanding of how cultural diplomacy is operationalised within concrete institutional settings such as mega-event cultural programmes.

Cultural diplomacy is often conceptualised as a state-led instrument of foreign policy, aligned with soft power strategies and coordinated by national governments to project identity, values and prestige in the international arena (Cummings, 2003; Nye, 2004; Nye and Jisi, 2009). It has also been interpreted as international cultural relations, exchange and cooperation (Ang et al., 2015; Kolokytha, 2022). This focus on diplomatic intent frequently overlooks the organisational contexts and policy instruments, such as events and structured cultural programmes, through which cultural diplomacy is operationalised.

Recent scholarship has shifted attention toward multi-actor and multi-scalar configurations of cultural diplomacy (Isar and Triandafyllidou, 2021). Cultural diplomacy now extends beyond national governments to include cities, regions, cultural organisations, and civil-society networks (Kolokytha, 2022), enacted through governance arrangements and locally embedded practices. In this context, urban and regional cultural initiatives function as spaces for exchange and international engagement, with subnational actors actively shaping cultural diplomacy.

Recent debates emphasise that regions and cities increasingly act as cultural diplomats, translating local resources and narratives into global arenas (Riordan, 2005; Beall and Adam, 2017). This perspective resonates strongly with decentralised Olympic frameworks such as Milano–Cortina 2026, where cultural initiatives depend on collaboration among regional authorities, municipalities, and grassroots organisations. In such contexts, cultural diplomacy provides a lens to interpret how governance, culture, and territory interact, revealing practice-based processes through which local actors gain visibility and position themselves within multi-level Olympic governance.

Scholarly attention to the role of events and mega-events in cultural diplomacy is relatively recent. Some studies have framed these occasions as instruments of nation branding and soft power (Hurn, 2016; Roche, 1994). However, this research often treats culture as a symbolic resource, with limited analysis of the governance dimensions that produce cultural diplomacy. The organisation of diplomatic processes within event-specific cultural programmes remains insufficiently examined.

Cultural Olympiads provide a relevant analytical entry point. As official cultural programmes of the Olympic Games, they constitute structured frameworks for planning and communicating cultural activities (García, 2008; 2017b). Their implementation involves multiple actors and decentralised governance across territorial scales, making them suitable contexts for examining cultural diplomacy in practice.

The Olympic Games function as global platforms for cultural expression and visibility. Ceremonies, branding strategies, and cultural programmes are widely interpreted as mechanisms of symbolic representation and soft power (Arning, 2013; Garcia, 2017a; Gillespie and O’Loughlin, 2015). Concurrently, extensive literature addresses their roles in urban development, tourism, and city branding (Bailey et al., 2004; Kim, 2011; McCarthy, 1998; Zhang and Zhao, 2009). However, these perspectives often neglect the diplomatic dimension of cultural programming. Ponzini et al. (2024) contribute by analysing cultural mega-events and urban governance in Milan.

The Cultural Olympiad has evolved from artistic competitions to multi-year programmes, institutionalised since Barcelona 1992 (García, 2017b). Despite its central role, it remains weakly codified and inconsistently defined. While existing studies address programme identity, audience, and legacies (Bondonio et al., 2007; Dansero and Segre, 2002; García, 2008; Gilmore, 2014; Pappalepore and Duignan, 2016; Segre and Scamuzzi, 2004), they rarely examine its function as an arena for cultural diplomacy.

Mega-events are often described as platforms for visibility and exchange, facilitating the circulation of ideas and networks. However, limited attention has been paid to the governance processes structuring these dynamics, particularly the role of subnational actors.

Collectively, these strands of literature reveal a gap in understanding how cultural diplomacy operates within mega-event cultural programmes. While mega-events are framed as potential instruments of cultural diplomacy, the conditions under which this function materialises remain underexplored. This paper addresses this gap by examining the formation of cultural diplomacy within the Cultural Olympiad of Milano–Cortina 2026, focusing on the role of local cultural actors in a peripheral Alpine context.

Method and research

The methodological framework integrates desk-based research with a survey of local cultural stakeholders to capture the spatial, socio-economic and governance dimensions that shape the Cultural Olympiad of Milano–Cortina 2026 and its potential to function as a form of subnational cultural diplomacy. The methodology analyses the institutional, organisational and territorial conditions enabling cultural diplomacy prior to the mega-event. This mixed-method design provides an ex ante perspective on how cultural programmes are structured within a decentralised mega-event across metropolitan and peripheral Alpine territories, and examines their interaction with cultural policy and cultural management at regional and local levels.

The initial stage consisted of desk-based research. The study adapted the Cultural and Creative Cities Monitor (European Commission, 2019) to evaluate cultural vibrancy, the creative economy, and enabling environments in Belluno, a mountainous region characterised by demographic decline and a strong cultural heritage. Here, cultural vibrancy is understood not only in terms of infrastructure and participation but also as the facilitation of cultural relations and exchanges. The mapping reveals uneven capacities to host, mediate, and represent culture beyond the local context.

The analysis mapped the spatial distribution of cultural infrastructures—museums, libraries, heritage sites and other publicly accessible cultural facilities—and participation patterns based on tourism flows. Data on cultural infrastructures were sourced from ISTAT (2024), while participation data capture resident and visitor engagement. Together, these data outline the context in which Olympiad-related initiatives may emerge.

Cultural events occurring between early 2019 and 2025 were identified through a systematic review of the regional newspaper Il Corriere delle Alpi and institutional sources, including regional event calendars, public funding registries, and territorial marketing programmes (Regione del Veneto, 2019-2025a; Regione del Veneto, 2019-2025b; Regione del Veneto, 2019-2025c). The selected keywords – exhibitions, workshops, sport, performances, and festivals – were used to capture activities through which cultural diplomacy and cooperation may be realised. While these initiatives were not formally part of the Cultural Olympiad, they were considered integral components of the local cultural ecosystem that could be mobilised for Olympic-related programming.

All initiatives were compiled into one database recording key attributes (event name, location, type, date, organiser, legal status, and source), enabling analysis of spatial patterns and organisational actors.

Event classification, drawing on Gwinner (1997) and Getz (2005) and adapted to the Veneto context, identified five categories: cultural, fairs, sports, institutional and music events. This facilitated analysis of thematic distribution and spatial patterns, revealing territorial inequalities in organisational engagement.

The desk analysis also examined the local creative economy, using data from Camera di Commercio di Treviso-Belluno (Treviso–Belluno Chamber of Commerce) (Camera di Commercio di Treviso–Belluno, 2019–2025) and ATECO classifications (Istituto Nazionale di Statistica – ISTAT, 2019–2025), complemented by the report of Fondazione Symbola (2024), to map the distribution of cultural and creative enterprises (Table 1A in Appendix A). This clarifies the economic base sustaining cultural programming and the professional milieu supporting longer-term cultural relations.

Finally, the policy framework was analysed through projects funded under Italy's National Recovery and Resilience Plan (PNRR), Mission 1, Component 3 – Tourism and Culture 4.0, using data from OpenPolis (Openpolis, 2025) and the Veneto Region's monitoring system (2019–2025) (Regione del Veneto, 2025e). These initiatives – focused on digitisation, village revitalisation and rural heritage – provide insight into institutional priorities and preparedness.

The second stage consisted of an online survey of cultural stakeholders in Belluno, administered between January and March 2025. The sampling frame was based on institutions, associations and foundations active in cultural and sporting events, and expanded using the Regional Register of Pro Loco Associations (Regione del Veneto, 2025c) and the Italian National Third Sector Register (Ministero del Lavoro e delle Politiche Sociali, 2025), yielding 216 organisations.

The questionnaire, pre-tested with experts, examined organisational roles, external visibility, collaboration practices, and territorial representation. It was structured in four sections covering organisational profiles, past activities, planned involvement in the Cultural Olympiad, and perceived long-term impacts (the latter not analysed here). This design allows an indirect assessment of how local actors position themselves beyond the local.

A total of 82 valid responses were collected (almost 40%). Spatial analysis (Figure 1) shows strong concentrations in Belluno and Cortina d’Ampezzo, with more limited participation in smaller Alpine towns, reflecting existing disparities in cultural infrastructure, organisational capacity and, consequently, in the ability to engage in subnational cultural diplomacy.

Figure 1.

Geographic distribution of survey respondents by municipality in the province of Belluno.

The integration of desk-based research and stakeholder perspectives links spatial, socio-economic and governance dimensions. This approach examines how cultural diplomacy emerges in a decentralised mega event across peripheral territories.

Results

The findings combine the mapping of cultural infrastructure and events, the assessment of the local creative economy, institutional strategies – including PNRR-funded initiatives – and the stakeholder survey.

Together, they indicate how cultural organisations, Pro Loco, heritage institutions and local authorities understand the Cultural Olympiad as both an opportunity and a constraint for cultural diplomacy, cooperation, and long-term policy. Rather than assuming all activities constitute cultural diplomacy, the analysis examines how configurations of actors, practices and visibility conditions constrain outward-oriented cultural positioning within the Olympic framework. The findings highlight the role of local actors and territorial inequalities in shaping subnational cultural diplomacy.

The desk analysis shows a dense yet fragile cultural ecosystem. Between 2019 and 2025, 318 cultural and social events were identified, with a peak in 2019, a contraction during the COVID-19 pandemic and only partial recovery thereafter.

Cultural events such as theatre performances, art exhibitions and showcases represented 41.8% of the total, while small-scale fairs and festivals, often organised by Pro Loco and voluntary associations, accounted for 29%. Forty-four % of events were organised by registered voluntary, cultural and sport associations, highlighting the central role of grassroots organisations as key agents of cultural diplomacy (Kolokytha, 2022) and pillars of the local ecosystem.

The mapping of cultural infrastructure highlights territorial inequality (Figure 2). While 35 museums are relatively evenly distributed across the province, 57 libraries are heavily concentrated in the provincial capital and the south-western municipalities, leaving mountain towns poorly served.

Figure 2.

Distribution of libraries and museums.

Similarly, the south-western area centred on Feltre accounted for 29% of initiatives, the south-eastern for 18.5% and the Cadore area in the north-east for 14.8%. The two main urban centres, Cortina d’Ampezzo and Belluno, together host 14% of total events. This uneven spatial pattern reflects the role of mid-sized towns as cultural hubs and the relative marginalisation of more remote Alpine municipalities, raising questions of territorial equity in cultural provision.

Events listed in the Regional Fair Calendar formed the backbone of regionally funded initiatives, with 227 fairs recorded, declining sharply during the pandemic (119 in 2019 to 20 in 2020 and 2 in 2021) and recovering (44 in 2022, 27 in 2024, and 28 in early 2025). These fairs play a key role in promoting artisanal products and sustaining local economies.

Figure 3 illustrates the distribution of events by category (cultural, fairs, institutional, musical, sports and conferences) for 2019, the pre-pandemic peak.

Figure 3.

Distribution of events by category.

According to institutional data, 61 events were funded through the regional programme between 2019 and 2025, including 30 cultural and 12 sports-related initiatives, 70% of which were organised by associations.

Activity was concentrated in Belluno (20 events) and the Cadore area (10), indicating a clustering of financial and organisational capacity.

The analysis of Great Events confirms these patterns: 35 major initiatives were supported over six years, mostly in sport, peaking in 2022. Ten of these events were hosted in Cortina d’Ampezzo and the Dolomiti Bellunesi, reinforcing their role as high-profile destinations within the Olympic geography.

Finally, the mapping of artisan and cultural enterprises (Figure 4) highlights the link between cultural vibrancy and regional development and resilience.

Figure 4.

Distribution of artisan activities by municipality in the province of Belluno.

A total of 631 enterprises in the cultural and creative sectors were registered in the province of Belluno, yet only 19 were craft-related, mostly in the southern area. These findings highlight a small but fragile niche in the local creative economy.

The analysis of PNRR investments reinforces this pattern. Under the ‘Attractiveness of Villages’ programme, over €15 million was allocated to Belluno municipalities, with major shares in Setteville and Selva di Cadore. Investments in the preservation of rural architecture and landscapes were concentrated in Belluno and Feltre, while Cortina d’Ampezzo received the largest single allocation, over €15 million, for hospitality infrastructure. Figure 5 shows marked variation in resource allocation: municipalities in the northern and southern areas received comparatively higher levels of funding, while several central municipalities received little or no investment.

Figure 5.

National Recovery and Resilience Plan (PNRR) funds distribution by municipality.

These disparities indicate uneven access to national recovery resources, raising territorial equity and governance in peripheral Alpine regions. In cultural diplomacy debates, this investment pattern shapes which localities can act as subnational cultural diplomats, projecting identities and territorial narratives through initiatives such as the Cultural Olympiad.

The stakeholder survey examines subnational cultural diplomacy in Belluno before the Milano–Cortina 2026 Games. Most respondents belong to cultural or social associations (40%), followed by public institutions (11%), with 41% focused on cultural tourism and 32% on broader cultural activities. Over three-quarters are engaged in event organisation, confirming the importance of grassroots and semi-institutional actors as potential intermediaries.

Experiences with previous mega-events, such as the Alpine Ski World Championships (2021) and the Ice Hockey World Championship (2023), highlight the perceived benefits-tourism growth (47%), enhancement of natural heritage (26%), and strengthening of local identity (12%) – alongside concerns about environmental impacts (59%), congestion (18%) and fiscal strain (14%), revealing an ambivalent view of mega-events as vehicles of cultural diplomacy in fragile Alpine territories.

Participation in Olympic-related initiatives is limited: over 70% of respondents reported little to no involvement, although 35% expressed interest in proposing cultural activities. When asked about benefits, 48% highlighted integration of sport and culture, 28% international visibility, and 15% cultural identity. Economic development was the outcome most strongly associated with cultural events (70%), while social development was mentioned by only 17%. This suggests mega-events are primarily seen as drivers of economic development and visibility, with more indirect diplomatic implications.

The survey shows that cultural event organisation is understood locally as a strategic field extending beyond cultural life to encompass development, collaboration, and community empowerment. Respondents emphasised the need for direct financial support (62%) and transparent mechanisms such as calls for proposals and targeted tenders (32%).

Stakeholders emphasise the value of event planning for knowledge transfer and capacity building: 73% consider these skills transferable to the wider community, and around 60% highlight its role in fostering cross-sector collaboration and place-based narratives, including within the Cultural Olympiad.

At the same time, they identify structural constraints – weak coordination (37%), difficulties in sustaining year-round programming (19%), and lack of dedicated policies (25%). This exposes weaknesses in cultural governance, limiting the capacity of Belluno and similar regions to translate Olympic opportunities into lasting cultural legacies and stronger roles in subnational cultural diplomacy.

Discussion

This study adopts an ex ante perspective to examine the cultural potential of the Belluno ahead of the Milano–Cortina 2026 Winter Olympic Games. The discussion draws on desk analysis and a stakeholder survey, which together reveal a dense but fragile cultural ecosystem characterised by strong grassroots vitality, uneven distribution, and limited institutional integration within Olympic governance structures.

The findings show that cultural diplomacy is unevenly embedded in Olympic governance, particularly at the subnational level. Between 2019 and 2025, 318 cultural and social events were identified, with a contraction during the COVID-19 pandemic and only partial recovery thereafter. Nearly half of these events were organised by voluntary and community-based associations, including Pro Loco organisations, rather than by public institutions. This reliance on grassroots actors points to a key tension: while local cultural vitality is strong, its translation into outward-oriented and strategically coordinated initiatives remains limited. Many activities are primarily oriented towards local audiences and are only loosely connected to Olympic planning and legacy frameworks. Survey evidence supports this interpretation, with 37% of respondents identifying a lack of institutional collaboration as a major obstacle, highlighting persistent weaknesses in multi-scalar governance and coordination.

The marginalisation of cultural programming within the Olympic framework, already identified in previous research (García, 2008; Good, 1998; Rowe, 2012), is supported by both desk analysis and survey findings. Moreover, respondents consistently perceived culture as secondary to sport and infrastructure, both in strategic planning and in resource allocation. Structural conditions, including the absence of binding International Olympic Committee (IOC) regulations for cultural programming and the lack of dedicated funding mechanisms, constitute persistent weaknesses. For example, during the Turin 2006 Olympics, only €2 million of a €1.229 billion budget was allocated to cultural initiatives (Massiani, 2018). A similar configuration is emerging for Milano–Cortina 2026: despite infrastructural investments estimated at approximately €3.1 billion according to the Italian Ministry of Infrastructure and Transport (2025), no earmarked budget exists for the Cultural Olympiad, and participation in the programme largely relies on self-financing. Lombardy has partially addressed this gap through targeted cultural calls formalised in recent regional measures (Regione Lombardia, 2024a; Regione Lombardia, 2024b; Regione Lombardia, 2025a; Regione Lombardia, 2025b), whereas Veneto's framework remains less defined.

Instead of a dedicated programme, Veneto allocates resources through the broader Veneto in Action framework (Regione del Veneto, 2025d), coordinating culture, tourism, environment and sport. This umbrella initiative promotes regional visibility but does not establish a clear cultural strategy linked to the Games.

From a cultural diplomacy perspective, this imbalance means that the symbolic and relational work of representing territories, identities, and traditions to external audiences remains under-resourced compared to material and infrastructural investments.

Survey responses further indicate that stakeholders primarily associate Milano–Cortina 2026 with infrastructure development and territorial promotion rather than with cultural or diplomatic legacies. Seventy percent identified economic development as the most likely outcome, and nearly half associated previous mega-events with increased tourism. Cultural benefits were perceived as more uncertain and less institutionalised, reinforcing the view that mega-events continue to be framed primarily as economic development strategies rather than as comprehensive cultural diplomacy projects. This reinforces the interpretation that cultural activities are predominantly framed in terms of development and promotion, rather than as forms of cultural diplomacy involving external engagement.

The ambivalence reflects a well-documented pattern in the literature. Respondents associate Milano–Cortina 2026 with short-term gains in infrastructure development and territorial visibility, while expressing concerns about environmental sustainability, congestion, governance capacity, and fiscal strain. This suggests that economic benefits dominate ex ante framings, while long-term social, cultural, and environmental costs remain insufficiently integrated into planning processes.

Such findings are consistent with broader critiques highlighting the tendency of ex ante evaluations to overstate economic returns while underplaying longer-term impacts and externalities (Atkinson et al., 2008; Massiani, 2018). In Belluno, this imbalance risks relegating cultural programming to a secondary role rather than positioning it as a core component of Olympic legacy.

Subsequent developments refine this assessment. In late December 2025, Fondazione Milano Cortina 2026 released the official Cultural Olympiad programme listing 211 events. Thirteen are in Belluno Province. Most take place in Cortina d’Ampezzo and the city of Belluno. Only a few occur in smaller municipalities. This spatial distribution indicates a selective activation of cultural capacity, privileging established centres over peripheral areas and limiting broader territorial representation. It also signals growing institutional recognition of the Games’ cultural dimension. While cultural diplomacy is not explicitly stated as a policy objective, some initiatives implicitly engage with international narratives. For example, the literary festival Una Montagna di Libri in Cortina d’Ampezzo connects local cultural production with global themes and audiences (Fondazione Milano (2026 (2025))).

The survey findings of organisational fragility should not be interpreted as a lack of potential, but as reflecting governance timing and prioritisation. Cultural capacity appears to be mobilised after key strategic frameworks are set, rather than integrated from the outset.

Stakeholders’ concerns therefore point to the need for a more integrated legacy strategy balancing economic development, environmental sustainability and cultural vitality. In line with Mair et al. (2021), the findings highlight the ambivalent effects of mega-events and the central role of governance. They are also consistent with Koenig-Lewis et al. (2021), who emphasise the importance of sustained community engagement for long-term legacies.

Enhanced coordination among grassroots associations, Pro Loco and institutional actors may strengthen the sustainability of cultural initiatives and their contributions to tourism and subnational cultural diplomacy. Local planning instruments suggest that cultural initiatives can support territorial activation and social cohesion (Intesa Programmatica d’Area Cadore, 2023).

These findings indicate that the cultural and diplomatic legacies of Milano Cortina 2026 will depend less on flagship projects and more on local actors’ and institutions’ capacity to consolidate emerging networks and governance over time. Unlike metropolitan contexts such as London 2012 and Vancouver 2010, where Cultural Olympiads were explicitly framed as cultural diplomacy platforms, the Milano Cortina 2026 Cultural Olympiad in Belluno remains weakly institutionalised, with limited strategic focus on its diplomatic functions and a strong reliance on pre-existing community-based initiatives.

In this context, cultural diplomacy emerges not as a formalised policy instrument, but as a partial and uneven process shaped by governance structures, local capacities, and the extent to which cultural initiatives engage external audiences.

Conclusions

This study has investigated the cultural potential of the Belluno area ahead of the Milano–Cortina 2026 Winter Olympic Games, addressing a research gap on mega-events, cultural diplomacy and peripheral mountain regions. Cultural diplomacy is examined as an emergent and uneven process shaped by the involvement of local actors, multi-scalar interaction and the capacity of cultural initiatives to reach external audiences.

By adopting an ex ante approach, the study shows how governance structures and territorial inequalities influence the ability of peripheral regions to engage with mega-events before legacies are consolidated. The predominance of local organisations, municipalities and community networks highlights the conditions under which subnational cultural diplomacy may emerge, particularly when initiatives connect with external visibility. In this context, cultural positioning is mediated through local practices and governance arrangements rather than formal diplomatic channels.

The findings also reveal territorial contrasts within the host region. Cortina d’Ampezzo, as an established tourism hub, continues to attract large-scale events and international visibility, while the Cadore district remains oriented towards smaller initiatives rooted in local traditions. These differences reflect varying perceptions of capacity, opportunity and appropriate scale for engaging with the Games, pointing to a structural asymmetry between the symbolic ambitions of mega-events and the limited cultural governance frameworks outside major urban centres.

Conceptually, this study contributes in two ways. First, it shows that subnational cultural diplomacy in non-metropolitan regions relies more on local networks, voluntary organisations and place-based cultural practices than in city contexts identified by the literature. Second, it demonstrates the value of an ex ante approach in identifying governance gaps, capacity constraints and territorial imbalances often overlooked in ex-post assessments, which prioritise outcomes over the processes generating cultural legacies. This perspective does not assume that all cultural activities constitute cultural diplomacy, but identifies those displaying outward orientation and external visibility.

At the same time, the research underscores governance challenges shaping the cultural and diplomatic potential of Milano Cortina 2026. Although stakeholders view the Games as an opportunity for economic growth and territorial promotion, they do not consistently interpret these in diplomatic terms. Instead, they highlight weak coordination, fragmented policies and the absence of a clearly defined cultural strategy at both regional and Olympic levels. Diplomacy, therefore, appears as an indirect outcome of cultural and territorial governance, with Belluno's external projection relying on under-resourced actors operating within an uncertain institutional framework.

Within this context, the Olympic Games can be understood as global arenas where narratives of identity, heritage and international openness are negotiated. In decentralised editions such as Milano Cortina 2026, this diplomatic dimension becomes territorially diffused, allowing areas such as Belluno to position themselves within broader national and international dynamics. Here, legacy is perceived more as a contingent outcome shaped by governance capacity, institutional recognition and coordination across scales rather than a predefined strategy. The Olympic Truce recalled by President Mattarella highlights the symbolic and diplomatic role of the Games as instruments of international communication (Palmerini, 2026).

By mapping cultural events, infrastructures, funding patterns and institutional perceptions prior to the Games, this study provides a baseline for future ex-post evaluations of cultural and diplomatic outcomes, and governance evolution in peripheral Alpine regions.

Ultimately, the analysis shows that in decentralised and non-metropolitan contexts cultural diplomacy does not reside in cultural activity per se, but in the conditions under which it is oriented, recognised and projected beyond the local scale.

Footnotes

ORCID iDs

Antonella Peli

Stefania Tonin

Funding

The authors disclosed receipt of the following financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article: This research was funded by the Veneto Region (PR Veneto FSE+ 2021–2027) through the project ‘A Regional Observatory on Culture and Creativity as Drivers of Development and Territorial Competitiveness’ (2120-0021-553-2023; CUP: H77G23000130002).

Declaration of conflicting interests

The authors declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Appendix A

Table 1A.

Personal elaboration of the ATECO codes selected for the mapping of Cultural and Creative Industries (CCIs), based on the classification proposed by Fondazione Symbola, 2024.

ICC sector (Fondazione symbola)	ATECO codes (Fondazione symbola)
Audiovisual and music	59.11/59.12/59.13/59.14/59.20/60.10/18.20/32.20
Software and video games	58.21.0/62.01.0/62.02.0/62.09.0
Publishing and printing	58.11.0/58.13.0/58.14.0/58.19.0/47.61.0/18.11.0
Architecture and design	71.11.0/74.10.1-74.10.9
Craftsmanship	13.99.1/15.11.0/16.23/16.29.19/18.12/18.13/23.19.9/25.99.99/31.09.1/32.20.0/32.12.2/32.50.5/33.20.03/46.47.1/47.71/47.91/74.10.1 S/90.03.02/91.01/95.23/95.24.01 D/
Communication and branding	70.21.0/73.11.0/73.12.0
Performing and visual arts	90.01.0/90.02.0/90.04.0/74.20.2/82.30.0
Historical and artistic heritage	91.01.0/91.02.0/91.03.0

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