The digitalization of discourse: Exploring key discussion points for the study of violence online

The concept of violence is multifaceted, encompassing different actions that may result in direct or indirect harm. Discursive violence pertains to the potential harm created by language—what is said and legitimized by society (Bourdieu, 1991). Because discourse is closely linked to power struggles and strategies for legitimizing oppression (Bourdieu, 1991; Fairclough, 1992), discursive violence can take different forms, ranging from explicit and identifiable forms like hate speech and aggression to less explicit forms such as stereotyping, dehumanization, and marginalization (Wodak, 2015). In this context, digital technologies and social media platforms have had a profound impact on how this type of violence circulates, influencing how society perceives, shares, and legitimizes discourses and how these shapes and influences collective behavior (Lovink, 2012). As these digital technologies shape language use through affordances and cultural contexts, they also shape discourse (Herring, 2004).

“Digital discourse,” thus, is not only a term to focus on the discourse that emerges from digital interaction, but also, on how the confluence of technical structures, affordances, and cultural appropriation have effects on society's discourses and thus, on people's behavior and culture. We know, for example, how algorithmic governance may influence which contents people have contact with online, and how this can shape, often in an undesirable way, their perceptions (van Dijck et al., 2018). Social media platforms, thus, have significantly increased the power and reach of problematic discourses by providing a widespread and easily accessible platform for dissemination. These platforms enable individuals and groups to amplify their voices and spread controversial or harmful narratives to a global audience (Phadke and Mitra, 2020). This represents a fundamental transformation in social life, communication, and the way societies collectively produce symbolic values, negotiate power relations, and generate knowledge through discourse. It signifies a pivotal change in how discourse is produced, shared, and legitimized in any given society.

The effects of this interaction that produces digital discourse are significant, influencing production, perception, and legitimation of ideas. Digital technologies facilitate the rapid circulation of information and algorithmic organization, shaping public opinion and the dynamics of digital public spheres and public discourses (Lovink, 2012). They also influence another crucial operation, legitimation, through which discourse is validated by a group or society (van Dijk, 2008). So, for example, research has shown how social media algorithms often prioritize sensational or divisive content, leading to the rapid spread of misinformation, hate speech, and extremist ideologies (Phillips, 2018; Tufecki, 2017). Furthermore, the anonymity and lack of accountability on many social media platforms may also embolden individuals to express discriminatory views or engage in online violence without fear of consequences (Marwick and Lewis, 2017).

Another important point is how lack of non-verbal cues and the presence of trolling contribute to misinterpretations and conflicts in online discourse (Cheng et al., 2017). Violent online discourses have implications for mental health, particularly affecting communities and women who face the legitimation of harmful stereotypes (Tavares and Recuero, 2023; Saha et al., 2019). One key example is the legitimation of stereotypes of “perfect” or “ideal” bodies in images shared on digital technologies, which has increased mental health problems, particularly, for women (Citron, 2014; Henry and Powell, 2018).

Online discursive violence also exacerbates societal polarization, creating echo chambers that reinforce existing beliefs and contribute to disinformation (Galpin and Vernon, 2023). Digital platforms facilitate the formation of these closed groups with access to homogeneous content without debate, which may contribute to political radicalization, for example (Benkler et al., 2018). Thus, it can divide, radicalize, and isolate people, breaking the public discourse and shattering the public sphere (Cinelli et al., 2021).

Digital technologies have also facilitated trolling and aggression on a large scale against individuals and groups, intensifying the effects of offline violence. Even through the legitimation of non-explicitly violent discourses, these technologies allow for the normalization of violence, particularly against minorities (Henry and Powell, 2018; Wodak, 2015). Constant exposure to this discursive violence can contribute to the normalization of aggressive language and behaviors offline as well, eroding social norms and fostering a more hostile public discourse (Citron, 2014; Papacharissi, 2002, 2004). Thus, the prevalence of discursive violence can hinder meaningful and respectful conversations and discourage individuals from participating in online discussions or expressing diverse opinions, leading to a narrowing of perspectives and a loss of the benefits of open and inclusive discourse.

The increase in toxicity is another important effect (Recuero, 2024; Tavares and Recuero, 2023). Because online discursive violence is legitimated and spread, it creates unsafe environments for digital interaction. It poisons interactions, spreading violent effects and silencing opposite or different discourses. This can embolden individuals to engage in aggressive behavior they might not exhibit in face-to-face interactions, contributing to a toxic online culture (Recuero, 2024).

With this in mind, we also need to explore contextual questions. The large majority of digital platforms, for example, is in English. The companies that provide these digital technologies are also localized in the countries belonging to these geographical and economic groups. But what are the effects of digital violent discourses, for example, in countries where English is not the first language? Given that most of the moderation and policies are in English, other linguistic groups may lack attention. Effects may also be different depending on the cultural context and historical and political situations. Finally, research has shown that digital violent discourse has had a profound impact on racism (Daniels, 2013) and the naturalization of anti-minorities discourse (Müller and Schwarz, 2020). How do the differences from North to South impact these problems?

The global and decentralized nature of the internet makes it challenging to regulate and effectively address instances of discursive violence. Policymakers face difficulties in balancing freedom of expression with the need to mitigate harmful online behaviors, particularly across different countries. Addressing these problems requires a multifaceted approach involving technological, legal, and societal interventions. This includes promoting digital literacy, developing, and enforcing clear online community standards, and fostering a culture of respectful and constructive communication on digital platforms. Moreover, it also requires a focus on how digital technologies enable and allow for these discourses to take root and spread, as well as how they can be held responsible for that.

In this discussion, we highlighted the changes social media platforms have created for online communications and the negative effects it may hinder among different social groups. This shift toward online discourse has brought about profound changes in society that necessitate thorough examination and research. These transformations have redefined the dynamics of communication, social interaction, and the dissemination of information. They have redefined the public sphere and how ideas circulate in our society. With the increasing reliance on digital platforms for communication and information sharing, there is a need to understand how these platforms shape public opinion, influence behavior, and impact societal norms. The democratization of discourse through online platforms has also given voice to diverse perspectives and marginalized communities, highlighting the potential for positive social change. However, alongside these opportunities, there are also challenges such as the spread of violence and toxicity. Therefore, comprehensive research into the effects of online discourse on platforms is essential to develop strategies for addressing these challenges, fostering healthy online environments, and promoting informed civic engagement in the digital age.