During the diesel engine combustion process, soot particles are produced and are either exhausted into the atmosphere or absorbed by the engine's lubricant. Soot-contaminated lubricant has been shown to produce significant amounts of engine wear. The main mechanism of soot-related wear is through abrasion, but, at increased levels of soot content in the lubricant, starvation of the contact can occur, which can increase wear further. High concentrations of soot can increase the local acidic level and, around the piston where high temperatures and volatile gases coexist, corrosion may also occur. In this paper, the current understanding of engine wear due to soot contamination and the previous research performed is reviewed. The paper also discusses soot formation and its general effects within the engine (including friction and efficiency), as well as other issues including filtration or removal, effects on the lubricant, engine design and operation, and future industry targets and technologies related to soot contamination.
QuerliozE.VilleF.LubrechtA. A.LenonH.Experimental investigations on the contact fatigue life under starved conditions. In Tribology at the interface, Proceedings of the 33rd Leeds-Lyon Symposium on Tribology, Leeds, UK, 12-15 September 2006; in Tribology Int., 2007, 140(10-12), 1619–1626.
12.
Chinas-CastilloF.SpikesH. A.The behaviour of diluted sooted oils in lubricated contacts. In Transient processes in tribology, Proceedings of the 30th Leeds-Lyon Symposium on Tribology, Lyon, France, 2-5 September 2003, 2004, pp. 37–43 (Elsevier, Amsterdam).
13.
NagaiI.EndoH.NakamuraH.YanoH.Soot and valve train wear in passenger car diesel engines. SAE paper 831757, 1983.
14.
RoundsF. G.Carbon: cause of diesel engine wear? SAE paper 770829, 1977.
15.
YoshidaK.SakuraiT.Some aspects of tribological behaviour on dispersed-phase system. Lubric. Engng, 1998, 44, 913–921.
16.
GautamM.DurbhaM.ChitoorK.JaraiediM.MariwallaN.RippleD.Contribution of soot contaminated oils to wear. SAE paper 981406, 1998.
17.
TaylorR. I.Future challenges for engine lubricants. In Tribology 2006, Proceedings of the IMechE Conference on Surface engineering and tribology for future engines and drivelines, London, 2006 (Professional Engineering Publishing Ltd, London).
18.
TaylorR. I.MainwaringR.MortierR. M.Engine lubricant trends since 1990. Proc. IMechE, Part J: J. Engineering Tribology, 2005, 219, 331–346.
19.
Federal and California exhaust and evaporative emission standards for light-duty vehicles and light-duty trucks, 2000 (US Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC).
20.
KlieshJ.LangerT.Deliberating diesel: environmental, technical, and social factors affecting diesel passenger vehicle prospects in the United States, 2003 (American Council for an Energy-Efficient Economy, Washington, DC).
21.
GotzeH. J.SchneiderJ.HerzogH. G.Determination of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in diesel soot by high-performance liquid chromatography. Fresenius J. Analyt. Chemistry, 1991, 340(1), 27–30.
22.
MunsonJ. W.HertzP. B.Seasonal diesel fuel and fuel additive lubricity survey using the Munson ROCLE bench test. SAE paper 1999-01-3588, 1999.
23.
BeatriceC.BertoliC.Del GiacomoN.MigliaccioM. N. A.Potential of oxygenated synthetic fuel and reformulated fuel on emissions from a modern DI diesel engine. SAE paper 1999-01-3595, 1999.
24.
ChengA. S.DibbleR. W.Emissions performance of oxygenate-in-diesel blends and Fischer-Tropsch diesel in a compression ignition engine. SAE paper 1999-01-3606, 1999.
25.
StaatF.GateauP.The effects of rapeseed oil methyl ester on diesel engine performance, exhaust emissions and long-term behaviour - a summary of three years of experimentation. SAE paper 950053, 1995.
26.
HansenK. L.JensenM. G.Chemical and biological characteristics of exhaust emissions from a DI diesel engine fuelled with rapeseed oil methyl ester (RME). SAE paper 971689, 1997.
27.
SapuanS. M.MasjukiH. H.AzlanA.The use of palm oil as diesel fuel substitute. Proc. Instn Mech. Engrs, Part D: J. Automobile Engineering, 1995, 210, 47–53.
28.
RaadnuiS.MeenakA.Effects of refined palm oil (RPO) fuel on wear of diesel engine components. Wear, 2003, 254, 1281–1288.
29.
ChangD. Y.Van GerpenJ. H.Fuel properties and engine performance for biodiesel prepared from modified feedstocks. SAE paper 971684, 1997.
30.
TritthartP.ZelenkaP.Vegetable oils and alcohols additive fuels for diesel engines. SAE paper 905112, 1990.
31.
GreenD. A.LewisR.Dwyer-JoyceR. S.The wear effects and mechanisms of soot contaminated automotive lubricants. Proc. IMechE, Part J:J. Engineering Tribology, 2006, 220, 159–169.
32.
RamkumarP.WangL.HarveyT. J.WoodR. J. K.NelsonK.YamaguchiE. S.HarrisonJ. J.PowrieH. E. G.The effect of diesel engine oil contamination on friction and wear. In Proceedings of the World Tribology Congress III (WTC2005), Washington, DC, USA, 12-16 September 2005, abstract WTC2005-63854 (American Society of Mechanical Engineers, New York).
33.
YamaguchiE. S.UntermannM.RobyS. H.RyasonP. R.YehS. W.Soot wear in diesel engines. Proc. IMechE, Part J: J. Engineering Tribology, 2006, 220, 463–469.
34.
BellJ. C.Reproducing the kinematic conditions forautomotive valve train wear in a laboratory test machine. Proc. Instn Mech. Engrs, Part J: J. Engineering Tribology, 1996, 210, 135–44.
35.
GreenD. A.LewisR.Dwyer-JoyceR. S.Wear of valve train components due to soot contaminated lubricant. SAE paper 2006-01-1098, 2006.
36.
KuoC. C.PassutC. A.JaoT.CsontosA. A.HoweJ. M.Wear mechanism in Cummins M-11 high soot diesel test engines. SAE paper 981372, 1998.
37.
Global performance specification for diesel engine oil (global DHD-1) - recommended guideline, 2001 (Japan Automobile Manufacturers' Association, Inc., Washington, DC).
38.
GroffW. P.Evaluation and qualification of gasoline and diesel engine lubricants, 1997 (Southwest Research Institute, San Antonio, Texas).
39.
ASTM G133-05. Standard test method for linearly reciprocating ball-on-flat sliding wear, in ASTM Book of Standards, vol. 03.02, 1995 (ASTM International, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania).
40.
TruhanJ. J.QuJ.BlauP. J.The effect of lubricating oil condition on the friction and wear of piston ring and cylinder liner materials in a reciprocating bench test. Wear, 2005, 259, 1048–1055.
41.
MascoloG.RausaR.BagnuoloG.MininniG.TinucciL.Thermal degradation of synthetic lubricants under oxidative pyrolytic conditions. J. Analyt. Appl. Pyrolysis, 2006, 75(2), 167–173.
42.
RoundsF. G.The generation of synthetic diesel engine oil soots for wear studies. Lubric. Engng, 1984, 40(7), 394–401.
43.
WedlockD. J.ShuffP.Dare-EdwardsM.JiaX.WilliamsR. A.Experimental and simulation approaches to understanding soot aggregation. SAE paper 1999-01-1516, 1999.
44.
HosonumaK.YoshidaK.MatsunagaA.The decomposition products of zinc dialkyldithio-phosphate in an engine and their interaction with diesel soot. Wear, 1985, 103, 297–309.
45.
TorranceM.Wear of lubricated steel in the presence of dispersed carbon. In Proceedings of the IMechE Mission of Tribology Conference, London, 2004 (Professional Engineering Publishing Limited, London).
46.
KawamutraM.IshiguroT.FujitaK.MorimotoH.Deterioration of antiwear properties of diesel engine oils during use. Wear, 1988, 123, 269–280.
47.
BerbezierI.MartinJ. M.KapsaP.The role of carbon in lubricated mild wear. Tribology Int., 1986, 19(3), 115–122.
GautamM.ChitoorK.DurbhaM.SummersJ. C.Effect of diesel soot contaminated oil on engine wear - investigation of novel oil formulations. Tribology Int., 1999, 32, 687–699.
50.
GautamM.ChitoorK.BallaS.KeaneM.Contribution of soot contaminated oils to wear - part II. SAE paper 1999-01-1519, 1999.
51.
SatoH.TokuokaN.YamamotoH.SasakiM.Study of wear mechanism by soot contaminated in engine oil. SAE paper 1999-01-3573, 1999.
52.
MainwaringR.Soot and wear in heavy-duty diesel engines. SAE paper 971631, 1997.
53.
DevlinM. T.BarenR. E.SheetsR. M.McIntoshK.TurnerT. L.JaoT.Characterization of deposits formed on sequence IIIG pistons. SAE paper 2005-01-3820, 2005.
54.
IshikiK.OshidaS.TakiguchiM.UrabeM.A study of abnormal wear in power cylinder of diesel engine with EGR - wear mechanism of soot contaminated in lubricating oil. SAE paper 2000-01-0925, 2000.
MasukoM.SuzukiA.UrenoT.Influence of chemical and physical contaminants on the anti-wear performance of model automotive engine oil. Proc. IMechE, Part J: J. Engineering Tribology, 2006, 220, 455–462.
57.
SoejimaM.EjimaY.UemoriK.KawasakiM.Studies on friction and wear characteristics of cam and follower: Influences of soot contamination in engine oil. JSAE Rev., 2002, 23, 113–119.
58.
KimC.PassutC. A.ZangD. M.Relationships among oil composition combustion-generated soot, and diesel engine valve train wear. SAE paper 922199, 1992.
59.
LiuC.NemotoS.OganoS.Effect of soot properties in diesel engine oils on frictional characteristics. Tribology Trans., 2003, 46(1), 12–18.
60.
GreenD. A.LewisR.Effect of soot on oil properties wear of engine components. J. Physics D, Appl. Physics, 2007, 40, 5488–5501.
61.
DevlinM. T.GreeneS. V.WootonD. L.Molecular changes to polymeric additives occurring during fuel economy aging tests. SAE paper 982507, 1998.
62.
DevlinM. T.LamW. Y.McDonnellT. F.Comparison of the physical and chemical changes occurring in oils during aging in vehicle and engine economy tests. SAE paper 982504, 1998.
63.
RyasonP. R.HansenT. P.Voluminosity of soot aggregates: a means of characterizing soot-laden oils. SAE paper 912343, 1991.
64.
BatkoM. A.FlorkowskiD. W.DevlinM. T.LiS.EggerdingD. W.LamW. Y.McDonnellT. F.JaoT.Low temperature rheological properties of aged crankcase oils. SAE paper 2000-01-2943, 2000.
65.
ZeidanM.JiaX.WilliamsR. A.WedlockD. J.Simulation of aggregation with applications of soot-laden lubricating fluids. Particle Particle Systems Characterization, 2004, 21, 473–482.
66.
WatsonJ. H. P.Magnetic filtration. J. Appl. Physics, 1973, 44(9), 4209–4213.
67.
PappG.PeetersF. M.Spin filtering in a magnetic-electric barrier structure. Appl. Physics Lett., 2001, 78(15), 2184–2186.
68.
HawkesJ. J.CefaiJ. J.BarrowD. A.CoakleyW. T.BriartyL. G.Ultrasonic manipulation of particles in microgravity. J. Physics D: Appl. Physics, 1998, 31, 1673–1680.
69.
TarletonE. S.WakemanR. J.Microfiltration enhancement by electrical and ultrasonic force fields. In Proceedings of the Filtration Society Conference (Filtech 89), Karlsruhe, West Germany, September 1989, pp. 227–237 (Filtration Society, Karlsruhe).
70.
GuptaS.FekeD. L.Manas-ZloczowerI.Fractionation of mixed particulate solids according to compressibility using ultrasonic standing wave fields. Chem. Engng Sci., 1995, 50(20), 3275–3284.
71.
PeterssonF.NilssonA.HolmC.JonssonH.LaurellT.Separation of lipids from blood utilizing ultrasonic standing waves in microfluidic channels. Analyst, R. Soc. Chemistry, 2004, 129, 938–943.
72.
BoothJ. E.NelsonK. D.HarveyT. J.WoodR. J. K.WangL.PowrieH. E. G.MartinezJ. G.The feasibility of using electrostatic monitoring to identify diesel lubricant additives and soot contamination interactions by factorial analysis. Tribology Int., 2006, 39, 1564–1575.
73.
ParkB. Y.ParadisoA.KawabeM.MadouM. J.A novel dielectrophoretic oil filter. Proc. IMechE, Part D: J. Automobile Engineering, 2006, 220, 481–496.
74.
WadenpohlC.LofflerF.Electrostatic agglomoration and centrifugal separation of diesel soot particles. Chem. Engng Processing, 1994, 33, 371–377.
