The Ethnobotanical History and Holocene Extent of Yew ( Taxus Baccata L.) on the Irish Landscape

Abstract

Spanish

French

The European yew tree (Taxus baccata L.) has been utilized by humans for tens of thousands of years. The Irish saw the yew as a symbol of life and death, used the wood for religious implements, symbolized it in their alphabet, formed laws and stringent fines for harming the trees, and integrated its cultural significance into their lyric prose. There is contradiction in forest history literature as to the extent of this tree on the Holocene landscape, but toponymy, the ancient texts and pollen analysis suggest that yew was historically abundant. Pollen data suggest not only that the tree was abundant in Ireland, but also that it increased during a time of regional woodland decline. The tree became relatively rare on the natural landscape within the last 800 years and religious reverence has waned, but a revived interest in Celtic spirituality and movements by Heritage Council Ireland could serve to prevent further decline.

Keywords

Yew Ireland toponymy pollen ethnobotany

Taxus Baccata L. —an Introduction

There stands a yew tree in Perthshire, Scotland, as old as the days of Solomon. Hartzell (1991) recounts the local legend of the birth of Pontius Pilate in a Roman camp nearby, stating that the tree would then have been at least a thousand years old. This tree, the Fortingall Yew, is reputed to be the oldest in Europe (Voliotis 1986). J.E. Rogers (1935) goes as far as to say about the yew, “Its history is interwoven with the growth of civilisation.” Wilkinson (1973) states that the oldest known tool made of wood is a 50,000-year-old yew spear found in Essex, England. Later analysis by Oakley et al. (1977) suggests that it is actually a “thrusting spear” belonging to the Hoxnian interglacial ca. 200,000 years ago.

Trees within the genus Taxus have been revered by cultures in Ireland, Scotland, England, Switzerland, Sweden, Belgium, Germany, Norway, Yugoslavia, Poland, Japan, China and America. The yew has been considered a symbol of life and death and been depicted as the tree of life, “highways traveled between earth and heaven … a manifestation of God's existence” (Klein 1987).

Taxus baccata was formally named by Linnaeus in the fifteenth century. The colloquial names include English Yew, European Yew and Common Yew. The trees grow in an environment similar to deciduous broad-leaved trees and thrive in the moderate maritime climate of Europe. The dark green foliage is comprised of simple needles that are flat and linear. The bark is reddish brown and varies from smooth to flaky. The trunks are often fluted, and as the tree ages, the lower branches may act as buttresses if they are unmanaged by humans. They are shorter than most forest trees at 20(−28) m (Thomas and Polwart 2003). The trees are dioecious, the pollen anemophilous, and in the fall and winter the females develop a fleshy red aril with one seed tucked inside an open end. The tree does not reach sexual maturity until about 70 years of age (Hulme 1996; Thomas and Polwart 2003).

The yew is believed to be the longest-lived tree species in Europe with an average life span of 500 years (Hulme 1996; Milner 1992). The famed Darley Dale Yew in Derbyshire, England, is thought to be between 2,000 and 3,000 years old, and the Tisbury Yew in Wiltshire, England, over 2,000 years old (Hartzell 1991). The yew grows very slowly. Milner (1992) claims a growth rate of 1.1 cm per year for the first 500 years, but Allen Meredith notes tremendous variation in this estimate (Chetan and Brueton 1994) as does Thomas and Polwart (2003). The wood, because of its slow growth rate, is very compact. Czartoryski (1975) sums up the quality: “Since long, long ago the yew has been looked for by man as its wood is incomparable in its durability…the yew wood is one of the most beautiful in the world.”

Ancient Ireland has a particularly strong association with the tree. The following pages provide a summary of the cultural reverence and utilization of this natural resource. This synopsis is followed by the exploration of Irish toponymy, ancient texts and palynological analysis to identify the extent of the resource on the historical landscape. Contemporary abundance and ethnobotanical attitudes are also briefly discussed.

Celtic and Christian Reverence

The earliest waves of Celtic invaders may have reached Ireland from central Europe as early as ca. 650 BC (Mitchell and Ryan 1998) with subsequent groups arriving up to the time of Christ. The sensitivity of the lowland Celts (referring to the linguistic group that originated around the Danube) to their natural environment is evident from the measure of religious imagery associated with nature. There is evidence of the ancient Irish having uses, as well as reverence, for the yew tree specifically. A wheel with yew dowels found in Co. Roscommon dated to ca. 450 B.C. (Lucas 1972). A yew boat from Co. Westmeath dated to the 1^st century A.D. (Brindley and Lanting 1991). An Iron Age carved idol made of yew was found in Co. Cavan (O'Sullivan 1990). The will of Cathair Mor, written around the 2^nd century A.D., included 50 yew barrels to be left to his son, Daire Barach. To his other son, Mogcorf, he left 100 yew barrels (MacManus 1921). The Celtic legend Eochardh Airemh relates the yew as the most powerful and sacred tree of Ireland.

Legend insinuates that St. Brendan, an Irish saint famous for traveling, was using the Ogham alphabet by the 6^th century A.D. Though Ogham is based on the Roman alphabet and the suspected dates of early Ogham stones found in Ireland coincide with the arrival of Christianity (Mitchell and Ryan 1998), it is still considered the Gaelic alphabet. This alphabet consists of 13 consonants and 5 vowels. Each vowel (a, e, i, o and u) represents a member of the regional flora (fir, poplar, yew, gorse and heather, respectively). The gorse and poplar represent spring and autumn equinox, heather the summer solstice, and the fir and the yew share the winter solstice, signifying birth and death.

A.T. Lucas researched at length the Irish reverence of trees and published his findings in The Sacred Trees of Ireland (1963). He refers to this reverence as a “cult” and “a countrywide phenomenon” and that historically the Irish believed trees were “endowed with supernatural qualities.” Lucas identifies five main legendary trees of Ireland. One of these was the Eo Rossa (yew of Ross) in Co. Carlow. Connellan (1860) mentions a 7^th century riddle that asks: “Which are the two trees whose green tops do not fade till they become withered?” The answer is the yew and the holly. Connellan implies that these were the only evergreens in Ireland at the time the riddle was written. This author also mentions Dallan's Poem, which describes the quality of the Shield of Hugh as durable and made from a religious wood that bore berries.

Celtic spirituality is thought to have commingled with Christianity until the Norman invasions of the 12^th century. This commingling is evident in the Book of Kells (produced early in the 8^th century), which “combined the stately letters of the Greek and Roman alphabets with the talismanic, spellbinding simplicity of Ogham” (Cahill 1995). It is another 8^th century text Bretha Comaithchesa , or Judgments of the Neighborhood, that contains the most information on trees. Twenty-eight trees are discussed and divided into four classes of seven, based on their economic worth. According to Kelly (1999) the first, and most important, of the four classes is the airig fedo , or Lords of the Wood, which refer to oak, hazel, holly, yew, ash, pine, and wild apple (note yew is the only Lord included in the Gaelic alphabet). Any offense against such a Lord resulted in a minimum fine of two milk cows and a three-year-old heifer. Additional fines were determined by the nature of the offense. If a branch was cut, the punishment was to pay the base fine plus a yearling heifer. If a branch was cut below a fork the punishment was to pay the base fine plus a two-year-old heifer. If the tree was cut at the base, another milk cow was added to the fine.

Early literature and various archaeological finds contribute to the theory that the yew was of note to the Irish culture during the early Christian era. Kelly (1999) mentions two 9^th century dialogues: The story of Mad Sweeney is a dialogue between himself and St. Moling where Sweeney defends the beauty of a leaf of his yew tree. The teachings of Cormac comment on the long-lived nature of the tree. Two early medieval yew horns were found, one in Co. Fermanagh and another in Co. Mayo (Waterman 1969), as well as a late medieval yew casket in Co. Clare (Rynne 1971). Lucas (1963) mentions several pieces of literature that include the yew: one from 1024 which “celebrates three famous yew trees” in Ireland, and one from 1160 which commemorates some “remarkable” yew tree. Lucas mentions that in all probability these trees were “intimately associated with the church.”

The adaptation of ‘pagan’ places of veneration (trees and wells) into Christian holy sites was widely practiced by Christianity. Connellan (1860) quotes an unknown source who discusses the yew's likely role:

It seems most natural and simple to believe that, being indisputably indigenous, and being…at once an emblem and a specimen of immortality, its branches would be employed by our pagan ancestors…As it is the policy of innovators in religion to avoid unnecessary interference with matters not essential, these, with many other customs of heathen origin, would be retained and engrafted on Christianity on its first introduction (p. 154).

The association of the tree with churchyards is regularly mentioned in literature on the yew. Historically the trees were often older than the church itself, so it is feasible that either a church's location was chosen because of the presence of a yew, or that the yew was planted at an ancient religious site which later became Christian. Neeson (1991) states that yews were frequently used to mark the boundaries of sanctuaries and were associated with the fidnemed (sacred grove). “In Ireland yew is frequently used as palm on Palm Sunday, which to many Irish speakers is known as Dumhnach an Iuir (Yew Sunday)” (Vickery 1995). The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church has an entry for Yew Sunday: “A medieval name for Palm Sunday so called because branches of yew were carried in the liturgical procession” (Cross 1997).

The reverence of these culturally important trees resulted in them being objects of retaliation during internecine strife. “The crowning insult which could be inflicted on an enemy was the desecration of the sacred tree or trees at the inauguration place of his kings” (Lucas 1963). The ancient text, the Annals of the Four Masters (AFM), records a yew burning at Iubhar Arnun (location unknown) in the year 1014 and another in 1077 at Gleann Uiseann (Killeshin, Co. Carlow) (Lucas 1963). Fourteen religious places were set afire between the years 1162 and 1164. There are two specific yew references within the entry for 1162: “The monastery of the monks at Iubhar-Chinntrechta was burned, with all its furniture and books, and also the yew tree which Patrick himself had planted” and “ Imleach-Iubhair , with its church, was burned” (Corpus of Electronic Texts 2005). The first burning refers to Newry, Co. Down; the second refers to the monastery at Emly, Co. Tipperary. Iubhar Arnun , Iubhar-Chinntrechta and Imleach-Iubhair are etymologically connected with the yew. It is to be noted that these places were very likely named for a sacred yew present at the site.

Was the Yew a Common Landscape Element in Ancient Ireland?

The significance of yew in ancient Ireland is obvious, but literature that reveals reverence and utility does not often refer to the quantity of the resource on the landscape. Some trees are revered because they are uncommon. The previously mentioned contradictions in literature added to the quantity quandary. McCracken (1971) states that in Ireland the yew “did not form large stands but was fairly common as an occasional tree.” Nelson and Walsh (1993) state the yew was “never a dominant tree in the (Irish) landscape during the post glacial period.” Tittensor (1980) claims, in reference to the entire Holocene, that yew was “widespread but uncommon.” On the contrary, Neeson (1991) and Huntley and Webb (1988) claim it to be formerly “abundant.” Srodon (1975) states that during the Holocene yews often formed large concentrations. Oliver Rackham (1980) comments in his oft-cited book on ancient woodland that during the Bronze Age pine and yew outnumbered oak in the region. Books and poems descriptive of historic England and Ireland insinuate that the tree formed dark and mysterious forests suggesting that there must have been more than the “occasional tree.”

Yew Toponyms

As an element of culture, place names “serve as multifunctional signposts in a landscape” (O'Flanagan 1979). Countless places in the world are named after flora significant to a particular culture. The study of place names, or toponymy, can be a useful ethnobotanical endeavor. Place names associated with specific plants may indicate their presence on the historical, and even ancient, landscape. One of the first endeavors of the quantity quandary was to explore place names associated with the yew tree. Hartzell (1991) claims that derivations of ‘yew’ can be found as place names all over Europe where the trees have been extinct for centuries. Erikkson (1913) used toponymy to identify the yew's former distribution in Sweden, as did Svenning and Magard (1999) for Denmark.

The constant repetition of place names in Ireland marks some homogeneity of the Gaelic culture. Elements of names such as rath (fort), cill (church), and baile (home-place) are unequivocally prevalent. It is generally accepted that iubhar , which later evolved into iur , is the ancient spelling for yew. The original nominative case and plural genitive case is iubhar with the singular genitive iubhair . The second nominative and plural genitive, iur , has the singular genitive iuir . A third nominative and plural genitive is eo , the singular being simply i (Kevin Murray, University College Cork, personal communication 2002).

After becoming acquainted with Irish place-name texts (i.e., Flanagan and Flanagan 1994; Joyce 1990; Lewis 1837; Room 1986) and communicating with various Old-Irish linguists, numerous toponymic associations became obvious. Ballinure and Ballynure were anglicized from Baile-an-iubhair . Killinure and Killenure were anglicized from Cill-an-iubhar , etc. The General Alphabetical Index to the Townlands and Towns, Parishes and Baronies of Ireland: Based on the Census of Ireland for the year 1851 (GAI) was used to create a database of locations possibly named after an association with the tree. Many of these locations are not listed on contemporary maps, having been absorbed into bigger townlands or re-named during the 19^th and 20^th centuries, but they still exist in terms of local vernacular and thus were retained in the database. Each GAI entry included a reference to the corresponding second edition Ordnance Survey (OS) maps from the 1830s and 1840s. These maps were used to find the locations and the current OS maps were referenced to estimate coordinates. The final list of places named after the yew (which ended up being compiled from numerous text sources as well as chance findings during road trips) was examined for accuracy by Kevin Murray, an Old-Irish linguist at University College Cork.

The 160 towns (Figure 1) are distributed in 31 of the 32 counties of Ireland. If the towns were indeed named for the presence of the tree, it seems that the yew at one time or another found its niche in most of its potential habitat, but what of the amount? Quantifying yew extent from such a query could be rather futile, but the names can at least give hints toward whether individual locations were named for one tree ( Cill Iubhair – Church of the Yew), or many ( Achadh na nIubhar – Field of Yews). A future project is to have a linguist review the database in terms of singularity or plurality. In sum, the toponymic distribution was viewed as a hint toward the yew being a common landscape element. A more rigorous analysis of yew extent follows, which explores archaeological and palynological data and entries in the archives.

Figure 1

Locations of towns named after the yew tree (Taxus baccata L.) in Ireland. Illustration by J.L. Delahunty.

Prehistory: Palynological and Archaeological Data

Yew pollen has been found in Ireland's Pleistocene sediments (Dowling et al. 1998; Mitchell and Ryan 1998) and early Post Glacial sediments (Fossitt 1994), but it was later in the Holocene, during the onset of warmer conditions and Ireland's Mesolithic Stone Age that yew proliferated, and in general, a climax phase of woodland endured.

The Neolithic is the benchmark for early human disturbance in the region, to the point of massive deforestation in mid-western Ireland (O'Connell and Molloy 2001). Neolithic clearance is also noted at G.F. Mitchell's (1965) renowned Littleton Bog site in Co. Tipperary, as well as in Co. Derry, Co. Kerry, and Co. Sligo (Mitchell and Ryan 1998). Neolithic woodland clearance, cattle de-barking, climate change, or disease (or a combination thereof) had a particularly detrimental, and regional, effect on elm. Ancient cultures left evidence of their presence in the form of four types of Megalithic tombs, tumuli, standing stones, mounds, and cairns. Irish Neolithic artifacts include bowls, polished stone axes, and various flint objects (a yew bow fragment found in Co. Fermanagh is dated to this period (Glover 1979)).

Yew increased at many sites during this time of general woodland reduction. This is especially evident in Glendalough in Co. Wicklow (Maldonado 2002) and Lough Nabraddan and Altar Lough in Co. Donegal (Fossitt 1994). Mitchell (1988) reveals a continuous record of yew back to ca. 4850 BP in Killarney, Co. Kerry. Delahunty (2000) reveals an almost continuous record of yew from ca. 4555 BP to the first century A.D. at Youghal, Co. Cork. Another significant find is on the Aran Islands, Co. Galway, where it was the dominant species at ca. 4200 BP (Michael O'Connell, University College Galway, personal communication 2001). O'Connell et al. (1988) identify an expansion of yew at ca. 3940 BP in Connemara Co. Galway. In addition, O'Connell and Molloy (2001) report that yew played a significant role in later Neolithic woodland regeneration at four locations in Co. Clare, three more locations in Co. Galway, and one location in Co. Mayo.

Bronze Age cultures brought a new range of implements, weapons, and structures, such as socketed axes, knives, sickles, and chisels, the ard plough, and hill-top enclosures (Mitchell and Ryan 1998). It is generally accepted that Ireland experienced a rise in arable farming coupled with woodland decline. Pollen diagrams from Glendalough, Co. Wicklow (Maldonado 2002), Tralong Bay, Co. Cork (Helps 1998), Lough Namackanbeg, Co. Galway (McDonnell 1988), and Lough Mallughlahan, Co. Donegal (Fossitt 1994) show a continuous record of Taxus during this time (as do the previously mentioned Killarney and Youghal sites).

As we travel through time into and beyond the Iron Age, we see a continuous record of yew pollen from 2500 BP to beyond 1000 BP (950 A.D.) at six sites: Camillan Wood and Derrycunihy Wood in Co. Kerry (Mitchell 1988), Glendalough in Co. Wicklow (Maldonado 2002), Lough Corcal and Lough Namackanbeg in Co. Galway (McDonnell 1988), and Reenadinna Wood in Co. Kerry (Mitchell 1990). Yew is at times a significant forest component but is not represented continually at Altar Lough, Co. Donegal (Fossitt 1994). This period also saw the making of the previously mentioned wheel with yew dowels, the boat made of yew, and the yew carved idol.

The first half of the first millennium is known for the coming of Christianity and a new phase of forest clearance, but yew reverence is well documented during this period and yew continues to endure at many sites well into the first millennium.

The Common Era: Information from the Archives, Common Lore, and Landscape Studies

At this point the rich Irish archives become a helpful addition to paleoecological evidence. Archival collections at universities and museums in Ireland and England are quite impressive.

Sir James Ware, a famous historian who wrote during the 17^th century said “some authors will have it that Ireland was in old times also called by the historians of that country, the woody island ( Inis-na-siodhbuidhe )” (Harris 1739). Giraldus Cambrensis, a rather famous 12^th century traveler, wrote the Topography of Ireland and the History of the Conquest of Ireland. Giraldus speaks specifically of the tree, “…yews, with their bitter sap, are more frequently to be found in this country than in any other I have visited” and later states “yews with which the woods of the island abound” (Wright 1863). His writings were within the Medieval Warm Period, ca. 11^th to 14^th centuries, when climate would have been favorable for yew.

It is also at this point that the medieval longbow should be mentioned. Europe was in turmoil and the yew longbow was a primary weapon. Upon commencing the research it was speculated that the scarcity of yews on the contemporary landscape (to be discussed in further detail) could be due to historical longbow raw material needs of the native Irish. Giraldus provides a clue to the contrary, “…the bows used by this people are not made of horn, or ivory, or yew, but of wild elm; unpolished, rude, and uncouth” (Wright 1863).

It seems improbable that the Irish would not know the quality of yew bows. Could their reverence of yews as sacred have stopped them from cutting them down to make weapons of war? The Irish tenaciously held on to their traditions in the face of English conquest. Giraldus stated in regards to Christianity: “The faith having been planted in the island from the time of St. Patrick” it is a wonder that this nation remains “to this day so very ignorant of the rudiments of Christianity” (Wright 1863).

Though Giraldus wrote a natural history that brings forth images of a beautiful country; 12^th century Ireland was undergoing tremendous physical and cultural change. Waves of European monastic orders arrived; the Cistercians then the Augustinians, and the Benedictines. Mitchell and Ryan (1998) go as far as saying “they provided a model of monastic rule which sounded the death-knell of the ancient native form.” In 1171 Henry II of England claimed himself Lord of Ireland and began the process of subinfeudation. He told Pope Adrian that Ireland's religion was corrupt, practically extinct, and his purpose was to “bring the barbarous nation within the fold of the faith” (MacManus 1921).

The writings of Giraldus would come in handy in the coming years of foreign exploitation, like an explorative report for imperialism. The Anglo-Norman invasions wreaked havoc amongst the Irish rulers and their landscape. “There has been fighting in all provinces, endless campaigns, cattle-raids, burnings, atrocities—Ireland lies like a trembling sod” (Mitchell and Ryan 1998, quote of an unknown author). After the in-depth exploration of the Irish reverence of yew, it is interesting to read Burke's (1958) declaration, “The conquest of Ireland, in 1172, would not have been possible without the use of the [yew] longbow.”

The following centuries brought a boom in foreign trade totally controlled by the English. The well-known and virtually complete destruction of Irish forests came to a head with the oppression of the Tudor monarchs. Though the Irish today fondly recall how they eminently preserved their ancient ways for centuries in the face of English power and forced Christianity, their reverence for yews could not have stopped the repercussions of the 1551 English Privy Council order, which stated that all yews in Ireland be used for bowstaves (Calendar of States Papers 1509–1573).

An 18^th century traveler related a completely different image than that of Giraldus six centuries before him: “The greatest part of the kingdom exhibits a naked, bleak, dreary view for want of wood, which has been destroyed… with the most thoughtless prodigality…” (Young 1925).

The 18^th century saw 16 Irish House of Commons Acts to plant trees. The acts enabled tenants to own the rights to trees they planted, but only if the trees were registered in the county books. The National Archives in Dublin housed most of the registries, but a fire claimed many of the tomes. All three for Co. Cork survived and McCracken and McCracken (1976) tallied about 9.5 million trees planted in this county alone. A thorough examination of the three tomes revealed only one entry regarding the planting of yews, but there were many entries for conifers, which impedes detailed analysis.

Contemporary reforestation movements favor the proliferous Douglas Fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii). These firs are the single tallest trees in three counties and a total of 13 are mentioned in the 2001 Tree Register of Ireland (TROI), a database of Ireland's exceptionally large trees. The non-native tree was first planted on the island in the 1850s at old woodland sites and has again become popular with foresters as the rotation is only 50–60 years. At Fota Island, Co. Cork, and in areas of Glengarra Wood, Co. Tipperary, the fast growing fir is clearly out-competing the yew for its niche.

The most famous yew wood in Ireland is located within Killarney National Park. The yew continues to survive in the area after thousands of years of existence despite the relatively recent 1551 ordinance and the fact that yew veneer was manufactured in Kerry in the 19^th century. The National Park status will likely facilitate their existence for future generations to enjoy. Yew woods were identified on the south-central Irish landscape at Lismore Castle Gardens in Co. Waterford, Glengarra Wood in Co. Tipperary and on Fota Island, Co. Cork (and smaller groups of yews were found in Cahir, Co. Tipperary and Blarney, Co. Cork). Lismore Castle's gardens are believed to be the oldest in Ireland. There are more than 200 yews on this property once owned by Richard Boyle, an infamous deforester known as The Ironmaster. The property is in private hands, but the gardens bring in revenue and thus the woods will likely persevere. The woodland at Glengarra is managed by Coillte, the leading Irish forestry company, but the area is managed as one of eight recreation sites in Co. Tipperary. Douglas Fir is being deliberately planted for future harvest in parts of the woodland, but the area with the largest yews and little other arboreal diversity (home to approximately 100 out of over 260 yews on the property), seems valued by management and thus should endure through the coming years. The woodland at Fota is owned by Toyota and is in juxtaposition to their south-central Ireland golf course. This woodland, with over 180 yews, contains a wide diversity of arboreal species.

Most of the yews at Lismore and all yews at Glengarra and Fota were measured. The trees at Glengarra reveal a significant girth mode of 1.8 m and the trees at Fota reveal a 2.0 m mode. Inconsistencies in noted growth rates make age estimation via girth suspicious, but if one gives Milner's (1992) 1.1 cm annual growth rate any credit, the trees would have been planted in the early 1800s. The author's opinion is that the yews at Glengarra and Fota found their place on the landscape when it was on “Gentlemen's Estates” to be “in vogue [to plant trees] in the early 19^th century—not only among landlords but among well-off tenants also” (O Murchadha 1982).

Eighty-four churchyards in Co. Cork were inspected for yews. A variation known as the Irish yew (Taxus fastigiata), propagated in the 19^th century, was included in the search. Taxus was found at 40 locations (48%). Archeological reviews and inspection of structures and headstones suggest that 38 of the 40 sites with yew have been utilized for a minimum of 300 years. Thirteen of the 84 churchyards are new and only two of these have yew on the property; both are single, young, unhealthy specimens in poor locations.

The yew tree is infamous for killing cattle and the occasional horse that eats too much foliage. Some Irish citizenry believe that yew was historically re-planted in churchyards so that cattle would be kept away from sacred ground. The yews at Mocollop churchyard, Co. Cork (which translates to Magh-collops or plain of the cattle) were blamed for poisoning a bull a few years ago when the foliage grew beyond the wall. In 1975 the Morrisey family of Co. Waterford lost 19 cattle to yew poisoning when the livestock broke through a local graveyard enclosure. There were at least two other cattle poisonings in southern Ireland in the 1970s, and together these occurrences produced such notable fear that livestock owners in the area are known to cut down any yew they see on their property. Archeological evidence suggests that cattle have been an integral part of Irish culture for literally thousands of years, and interestingly enough, Dr. Lee, a veterinarian from Co. Waterford, stated that before the major poisonings in the 1970s owners were probably afraid to report that their cattle had trampled upon religious ground.

Preston et al. (2002) in their New Atlas of the British and Irish Flora reveal, in reference to Britain and Ireland, that yew “is very widely planted in churchyards, parks and large gardens.” Old yew walks and rows abound in Ireland. Examples can be seen at Lismore Gardens, Loughcrew Gardens in Co. Meath, Clonmacnoise monastic site in Co. Offaly, Huntington Castle in Co. Carlow and the National Botanic Gardens in Co. Dublin. The Irish Tree Council's TROI includes 21 yews across Ireland with girths ranging from 3.56 m to 6.78 m. The Tree Council claims the oldest tree on the island is the 6.78 m girth yew in Bunclody, Co. Wexford thought to be 1,000 years old (2005).

Conclusion and Discussion

Yew has been part of the Irish landscape for thousands of years. Palynological data suggests that natural populations flourished during the Neolithic. Archaeological evidence suggests that the wood was valued during the Iron Age. Early Medieval reverence is recognized through legend, law, and the various annals of Ireland. Medieval abundance is noted clearly by a well-known chronicler before English law interceded and specifically targeted the felling of yew in Ireland in the 16^th century. Several yew woodlands remain on the landscape today but, “in recent centuries, we find that the yew has been virtually eliminated from the Irish countryside as a wild tree…” (Lucas 1963). Today, yew can be found in gardens and at recreational sites and prominent historical landmarks. The fact that Heritage Council Ireland classifies Yew Woods as priority habitat for conservation may aid in the preservation of woods. The revival of Celtic culture may also play its part in supporting conservation measures. The mysticism associated with the tree has endured via Celtic enthusiasts. New age websites claim various versions of the yew being “the most potent tree for protection against evil, a means of connecting to your ancestors, a bringer of dreams and otherworld journeys and a symbol of the old magic” (Kindred 1997).

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