Abstract
This research demonstrates that autistic youth recognize a need to focus on developing generalizable career skills, such as self-management, self-advocacy, and enhanced learning, which can be used in transition planning.
In envisioning the future of work, the World Economic Forum (2018) identified contextual factors that could influence how people work in the future. These factors include the high rate of technological change (shifting the tasks and skills needed in the workforce), the evolution of learning among the workforce (highlighting the need for problem solving and lifelong learning), and the mobility of workers (indicating that workers move between jobs and careers more often than in the past). These changes in the working environment highlight the need for a new approach to supporting career design for people on the autism spectrum (referred to in this article as autistic people 1 ), with a focus on directly engaging autistic people to (1) explore employment opportunities on the basis of their interests, (2) set goals that seek to improve the fit between capacity and job demands, and (3) develop problem-solving abilities to handle transitions, adapt to unexpected needs, and develop a positive sense of the future (Dean et al., 2020; Wehmeyer et al., 2019). In fact, experts in secondary transition have recently called for a change to a career design approach (Wehmeyer et al., 2019). As Wehmeyer et al. (2019) noted, a career design approach can be thought of as preparing students “to design a work-life that is satisfying to the individual, and that can be redesigned as needs, interests, life experiences, and opportunities change” (p. 182). Moreover, “accumulated knowledge, skills, and experiences can be invested to create or respond to new opportunities as they arise” (p. 182).
A career design approach is aligned with modern theory in the broader career counseling field (i.e., Life Design). Proponents of Life Design theorize that people engage in an ongoing process to construct their lives, which is informed by previous life experiences (Guichard, 2015; Nota et al., 2015; Savickas et al., 2009). Similarly, a career design approach for autistic youth requires students’ interests and goals to be central to the process. Rather than focusing on developing discrete job skills, the focus of intervention becomes setting career design goals that are based on interests (which could include learning discrete job skills), enhancing problem-solving abilities, and developing a career identity through continual reflection on employment and life experiences. Such career design goals often focus on one step of an ongoing process that will move youth closer to a greater vision for their career. Thus, participation in meaningful career-related activities based on personally set goals is paramount to a career design approach.
Such innovative approaches are critical to effective transition planning for autistic people, particularly given the continually low rates of competitive and integrated employment. Data from the National Longitudinal Transition Study–2 (a nationally representative sample of young adults who received special education services during school) show that autistic young adults have the poorest employment outcomes across disability groups, with just 53.4% having worked for pay outside the home at some point between ages 21 and 25 yr (Roux et al., 2013). It is unsurprising, then, that just 32% of autistic young people leaving school have jobs or a plan to obtain employment (Roux et al., 2015). The reasons for the poor employment outcomes for autistic youth are complex and largely systemic (e.g., low expectations for employment after high school, poor coordination and communication among community organizations supporting employment, little opportunity and support to exercise self-determination; National Council on Disability, 2019). As the field continues to seek to understand how to best provide education, training, and supports that lead to meaningful integrated employment, one key need researchers have identified is supporting students in setting career-related goals that are based on their interests (Wehmeyer et al., 2019). Moreover, this support needs to be provided in the context of interventions that also focus on solving problems in authentic employment settings and building a career identity. Given the infancy of this research, however, more needs to be known about the actual career design goals identified by autistic youth themselves.
Central to a career design approach is self-determination, which is a personal characteristic that enables a person to act as the primary causal agent in their life (Shogren, Wehmeyer, Palmer, Forber-Pratt, et al., 2015). People who are causal agents set and work toward freely chosen goals. In causal agency theory, self-determined action is defined as volitional (deciding how to act on the basis of interests), agentic (acting in service to self-identified goals), and enacted with action-control beliefs (believing the actions taken will lead closer to goals). The development of self-determination is critical for adolescents and young adults; research has shown that students with higher degrees of self-determination have better employment, community access, and quality-of-life outcomes as they transition from high school (Shogren & Shaw, 2016; Shogren et al., 2016; Shogren, Wehmeyer, Palmer, Rifenbark, & Little, 2015; Wehmeyer & Palmer, 2003).
Self-determination can be supported and enhanced through interventions that target self-determination abilities (i.e., choice making, decision making, goal setting and attainment, planning, problem solving, self-advocacy, self-awareness, self-knowledge, self-management; Shogren, Wehmeyer, Palmer, Forber-Pratt, et al., 2015). The self-determined learning model of instruction (Shogren et al., 2018) is an evidence-based practice to promote self-determination through a goal-setting and problem-solving process that has been modified for the context of career design in a version called the self-determined career design model (SDCDM; Dean et al., 2019; Wehmeyer et al., 2003). The purpose of the SDCDM is to teach a goal-setting and problem-solving method in the context of career design. A person works through the three distinct phases of the SDCDM—Phase 1, set a goal; Phase 2, take action; and Phase 3, adjust goal or plan—and answers four person questions in each phase to move through a self-regulated problem-solving process. A facilitator uses facilitator objectives as a guide for what they want to enable the person to achieve in answering each question, providing employment supports related to self-determination abilities. Through this process, people move closer to employment and career design skills while also building abilities related to self-determination.
There has been a shift in recent years to a focus on aligning the potential positive impact of preferred interests among autistic people with a strengths-based and self-determination approach (Koenig & Williams, 2017; Wehmeyer et al., 2017). Research with autistic adults is emerging that shows how preferred interests can inform vocational pursuits (i.e., types of jobs, such as medicine, education, or computer science; Jordan & Caldwell-Harris, 2012). In addition, research has suggested that autistic people have better employment outcomes when their employment goals match their interests (Koenig & Williams, 2017). However, an understanding of the career design goals that autistic people are interested in and that align with their long-term vocational interests is limited. Research exploring the career-related goals of autistic youth gives insight into career interests, which is critical for practitioners supporting young people preparing for careers. Thus, in the current study, we sought to examine the specific goals set by autistic young adults as part of a career design intervention.
The purpose of this study was to add to the transition and career design literature by descriptively analyzing the career design goals that autistic young adults set for themselves during an intervention to enhance self-determination. We addressed the following research question: “When engaging in the SDCDM, what types of career design goals do autistic young adults set?”
Method
This article reports a secondary analysis of career design goals set by autistic youth as part of an intervention study in which youth engaged in the SDCDM intervention (Dean et al., 2021). The intervention study was conducted with approval and oversight from the University of Kansas institutional review board.
Participants
To be included in the study, participants needed to be a young adult (ages 14–24 yr) on the autism spectrum who was looking for work in competitive employment. Participants were autistic young adults (N = 21), ranging in age from 14 to 23 yr (M = 17.7, SD = 2.7). Of the 21 participants, 16 (76%) were male and 5 (24%) were female. All but 2 participants were in high school and receiving special education services. Of the 2 participants who had completed high school, both had previous experience with employment, and 1 had a college degree. However, none of the participants reported receiving a systematic intervention for setting career-related goals or exercising self-determination or formal employment services (e.g., vocational rehabilitation). Thus, engagement in the SDCDM as part of this study represented a unique opportunity for participants to set and work toward career design goals. The research team recruited participants from a community-based organization serving autistic people and their families in the midwestern United States. The organization offers support outside of the school context by providing information and training for families, organizing social groups and sensory-friendly films for youth, and providing education and counseling for families of newly diagnosed persons. Before beginning the study, 6 participants were employed in either part-time, entry-level jobs (n = 5) or full-time work (n = 1). Participants who were working part time worked in the evenings and on weekends.
Intervention
The career design goals examined in this study were set using the SDCDM (described previously). The SDCDM focuses on supporting autistic young adults to set and achieve career-related goals. The overall outcomes from the study have previously been reported (Dean et al., 2021), with results showing statistically significant gains by participants in goal attainment and occupational performance. With the SDCDM, a facilitator supports a person with a disability as they work through the three phases of the model to set a goal based on the person’s career interests, develop an action plan to achieve the goal, and reflect on the goal-setting and attainment process. The model is intended to be used repeatedly, with a person revising existing goals and setting new goals over time to enhance self-regulated problem-solving skills related to the essential characteristics of self-determination (i.e., agentic action, volitional action, and action-control beliefs) and attain desired career design outcomes. However, the implementation of the SDCDM when the youth set goals analyzed in this study occurred in a feasibility study in which each person set and worked toward one goal. More information on the implementation of the SDCDM in this study is available in Dean et al. (2021).
Measures
To record goals and measure goal attainment, we used Goal Attainment Scaling (GAS), which is a highly adaptable yet systematic process of establishing goals and identifying a range of outcomes that would indicate progress toward achieving the goals (Carr, 1979; Kiresuk et al., 1994). Administration of the GAS involves three steps: (1) Identify an individualized goal; (2) develop a personalized 5-point rating scale that operationalizes expected outcomes, ranging from −2 (much less than expected) to 2 (much more than expected), with 0 being the expected level of attainment; and (3) rate goal attainment on the basis of the personalized rating scale. The GAS is a valid and reliable tool for assessing progress toward goals, and it has been used in a variety of disability research. As part of the SDCDM intervention, participants set their own goals by working through the four person questions in Phase 1 of the SDCDM, and facilitators recorded these goals. Facilitators incorporated GAS as a component of the process both to support participants in setting measurable and objective goals and to reflect on goal attainment. Facilitators worked with the autistic youth to establish measurable and objective goals during SDCDM sessions. For example, if a participant set a goal to “job shadow,” the facilitator worked with the participant to narrow the goal to “job shadow at three office settings.” Facilitators trained in creating valid and reliable GAS (i.e., scales that were measurable, equidistant, and unidirectional) developed the scales at the beginning of Phase 2 of the SDCDM. The facilitator then worked with the participant to establish the person’s expected level of attainment. Finally, the facilitator developed the full scale on the basis of this information and reviewed the scale with the participant. Coaches working with facilitators also reviewed the GAS during coaching sessions and made recommendations to improve its validity and reliability as an added level of rigor.
Data Analysis
To examine the types of career-related goals set by autistic youth, we used a conventional approach to content analysis (Hsieh & Shannon, 2005). In this approach, the focus is on codes that emerge from the data without preconceived categories. This approach was appropriate for this project given the dearth of research on career design goals for autistic youth. The first and second authors (Evan E. Dean and Kathryn M. Burke) separately reviewed each of the 21 goals and determined categories for each goal. Next, they compared their categories to find similarities and differences. In general, they agreed on most categories; however, slight differences were resolved through conversations. For example, one researcher coded a goal focusing on “applying for a paying job” into an “apply for a job” category, and the other researcher coded this goal into a “find a job” category. Decisions on category placement were made on the basis of a desire to show as much variability in the goals as possible but also limit the number of categories that included only one goal. In the preceding example, because the goal was specific to applying for a job and other participants set specific goals for finding a job, it was coded as “apply for a job.” Alternatively, another participant set a goal to “shadow three jobs,” which one researcher coded specifically as “job shadow” and the other researcher coded as “find job.” Because this goal was related to finding a job and this was the only goal set specific to job shadowing, this goal was coded as “find job.”
Interrater Reliability
After coming to consensus on the codes, the two researchers separately coded the goals a second time to establish reliability. They independently coded all 21 goals and compared their results with a predetermined criterion of 90% agreement. The calculation for interrater reliability is the percentage of agreement across all ratings (dividing the number of agreements by the total number of ratings, then multiplying by 100). Interrater reliability was 95%. For the one disagreement that arose, the researchers discussed the codes and came to agreement on the most appropriate placement, keeping in mind the desire to show variability in goals while limiting the number of one-goal categories.
Results
There were a total of 21 goals, which were organized into five categories determined through content analysis. Definitions and examples of the categories are listed in Table 1. The category with the most goals (n = 6) was “enhance self-management.” Individual goals in this category consisted of goals such as using checklists to keep track of tasks and making it to the bus on time. The next largest category (n = 5) was “obtain employment experiences.” These goals focused on applying for a paying job, submitting job applications, and applying to specific employers, and they differed from the related “explore career or educational opportunities” category by the specific focus on applying for jobs. Goals categorized as “explore career or educational opportunities” (n = 5) were more general in nature, such as search for a job, visit a job site, or get a part-time job. Three goals fell in the “enhance learning” category and were focused on learning skills in an area of interest related to their future (learning Excel, learning to drive, and passing the general equivalency diploma exam). In addition, students set two goals categorized as “enhance self-advocacy” that both focused on learning new skills to communicate with a supervisor.
Career Design Goals Set While Engaging in the SDCDM
Note. GED = general equivalency diploma; SDCDM = self-determined career design model.
Discussion
This study describes the types of goals set by autistic youth and young adults who were participating in the SDCDM intervention in the community. The purpose of the SDCDM is to enhance self-determination and career design by supporting people as they set and work toward self-selected goals. Although the intention of the intervention is not necessarily that the person will gain employment, almost half (n = 10) of participants set goals specifically related to obtaining or exploring employment or postsecondary educational opportunities. The majority of other participants set goals related to enhancing personal skills that can be used in any career field (i.e., self-management, self-advocacy).
Using a career design frame of reference, people engage in a variety of life and career activities based on their strengths and interests, and they form a career identity that is based on reflection on those experiences (Dean et al., 2020). Using this approach, practitioners can support people in developing a problem-solving capacity (e.g., decision making, goal setting, action planning, and self-evaluation) that is useful in any career path and to maintain a focus on preferred interests. It is interesting to note that many participants in this study set goals specific to enhancing problem solving, including developing strategies to advocate for their needs and preferences and developing knowledge related to a specific area of interest that will support employment (Bross & Travers, 2017), which is consistent with a Career Design approach. Although these goals may not lead to immediate employment, they enhance abilities that will be useful in employment settings and are often identified as critical to success. In addition, it is important to note that setting a goal to enhance abilities within the context of the SDCDM does not preclude the person from seeking employment. Rather, it is possible that other supports, such as job development or supported employment, may be needed along with the SDCDM. In fact, the SDCDM has been used along with job development activities to support adults with intellectual disability to enhance self-determination and gain employment (Dean et al., 2017, 2019).
Although work experiences are critical for career design and provide a foundation for future employment, this research demonstrates that autistic youth also recognize a need to focus on developing generalizable skills, such as self-management, self-advocacy, and enhanced learning. There are calls in the transition literature for more focus on “21st-century skills” needed to succeed in college, work, and life, such as self-direction, productivity, and social and cross-cultural skills (Morningstar et al., 2017; Vreeburg Izzo et al., 2010; Wehmeyer et al., 2019). Our findings suggest that autistic youth are aware of the importance of these skills, and practitioners should consider ways to increasingly support the development of such abilities. Although this is a significant finding, it is also important to recognize that the goals analyzed in this study that focused on 21st-century skills were set in an employment context; that is, students wanted to set these goals while pursuing work experiences. This finding aligns with recommendations that enhancement of these skills be supported in work contexts as opposed to taught in isolation from the employment context.
Limitations
The most obvious limitation of this study is the small sample size. Although this study provides a preliminary understanding of the career design goals of autistic youth, the findings should be viewed with caution because the sample is not a representative sample of all autistic youth. Moreover, we did not include systematic measurement of person factors (e.g., cognitive or physical support needs) as part of the study, so we cannot make claims regarding career design goals that are based on support need. Also, the youth who participated in this study were at the beginning stages of their career (i.e., many had not had previous employment). Therefore, this study is instructive as to early career design goals for youth, but the findings may not generalize to youth with more work experiences.
Implications for Occupational Therapy Practice
This research shows that when autistic youth are given opportunities and supports to set career goals, they express their goals and engage in the development of action plans to move toward their goals. This suggests the critical importance of self-determined goal setting in transition planning and career design. Occupational therapy practitioners who support autistic youth to prepare for transition and who focus on supporting students to engage in meaningful activities related to their future occupations are ideally situated to support self-determined career goal setting and attainment. Specifically, occupational therapists can engage autistic youth in the goal-setting and -attainment process to ensure that youth themselves are engaged in identifying and working toward their career goals; use a career design and self-determination approach to transition to ensure students have work and life experiences that they can draw on when making career decisions and setting goals; and ensure autistic youth are preparing for a career by continually reflecting with them on their work and life experiences and supporting youth in adjusting their goals as they gain more insights into work and life.
Conclusion
Supporting autistic youth in setting and working toward career goals using a career design approach is important for enhancing self-determination and career outcomes. This study analyzed the career goals set by autistic youth when using the SDCDM. Using the SDCDM, youth set and worked toward meaningful career goals. Occupational therapy practitioners can use the SDCDM to create opportunities to further develop self-determination and to support autistic youth to enhance their employment and career outcomes.
Footnotes
1
In this article, we use identity-first language to align with the preferences of autistic advocates (Bury et al., 2020).
Acknowledgments
This research was funded through an American Occupational Therapy Foundation Intervention Research Grant (Award No. AOTFIRG16DEAN).