Abstract
This is the first study to assess adolescents’ mindset in the context of their participation in everyday activities. The findings demonstrate the significant contribution of mindsets and can be incorporated into occupational therapy interventions aimed at promoting adolescents’ optimal participation.
Mindsets are personal core beliefs in the malleability of human traits and attributes. A fixed mindset is a belief that human traits and attributes are stable and cannot be changed. In contrast, a growth mindset is a belief that traits and attributes such as intelligence, emotions, or behavior are changeable and can be developed through education and effort (Dweck, 2008). Mindset theory was initially developed in an academic context to better explain students’ responses to challenges and setbacks. Studies have shown that students’ mindsets may determine their responses to academic challenges: Whereas a fixed mindset can lead to giving up, a growth mindset can lead to investing effort into the achievement of learning goals (Blackwell et al., 2007; Mueller & Dweck, 1998). Beyond its contribution to understanding academic achievements, mindset theory is constantly evolving to explain coping with performance goals in other domains, such as work (Zingoni & Corey, 2017) and mental and physical health (Conner et al., 2019; John-Henderson et al., 2021). It is important to note that mindsets are domain specific: One can maintain a fixed mindset regarding intelligence while maintaining a growth mindset regarding relationships (Chan et al., 2022). However, beyond variability, a fixed mindset posits that facing a challenge involves experiencing hard feelings, helplessness, and avoidance. In contrast, a growth mindset posits that facing a setback is experienced as an opportunity to learn and develop new skills through hard work, perseverance, and using specific strategies to overcome obstacles to achieving the goal (Burnette et al., 2013). Consequently, a growth mindset is crucial for coping with different challenges throughout life.
Adolescence is a phase of life from ages 10 to 19 yr (World Health Organization [WHO], 2022). This phase of human development is characterized by rapid physiological, psychological, and cognitive changes (Anderman, 2012). Adolescents face many educational, emotional, and social challenges. Researchers and practitioners have been intrigued by adolescents’ mindsets and their effects on positive outcomes in such a critical period of life. Therefore, many studies assessed the correlations between adolescents’ mindsets and positive results in various domains. Blackwell et al. (2007) found a growth mindset to predict math achievements among U.S. junior high school students. Walker and Jiang (2022) revealed the moderating effect of a growth mindset on the correlation between family stress and externalizing behaviors of high school students. Chan et al. (2022) found correlations between a growth mindset and psychological well-being among Asian adolescents. A growth mindset contributes to positive outcomes in various domains by fostering constructive thoughts, feelings, and behaviors such as engagement and persistence in tasks, ultimately leading to goal achievement (Chan et al., 2022; Dweck et al., 2014; Park et al., 2020). Therefore, it can be hypothesized that mindset also influences participation, although the relationship between the two constructs requires further investigation.
Participation, which is defined as being involved in life situations and is considered the highest level of functioning (International Classification of Functioning, Disability and Health for Children and Youth; ICF–CY; WHO, 2007), is a significant goal in the Occupational Therapy Practice Framework: Domain and Process (4th ed.; American Occupational Therapy Association, 2020). For both healthy adolescents and those with disabilities, participation in structured and unstructured activities has been associated with positive outcomes such as physical and mental health, life satisfaction, and well-being (Badia et al., 2013; Badura et al., 2015; Passmore, 2003; Rodriguez-Ayllon et al., 2019). Participation is conceptualized as a multidimensional construct: It can be described and measured in terms of diversity and frequency—the “attendance” dimension of participation—and it can be measured in terms of independence, enjoyment, or satisfaction—the “involvement” dimension of participation (Granlund et al., 2012; Imms et al., 2017). The positive outcomes of participation in different activities (e.g., home activities, extracurricular, leisure activities) could be explained by both the attendance and the involvement dimensions of participation. Participation is influenced by interactions between intrinsic and extrinsic factors, as described in various participation models (Imms et al., 2017; Kang et al., 2014; King et al., 2003; Rosenberg et al., 2013). Intrinsic factors include the sense of self and self-regulation, as defined by the family of participation-related constructs framework (Imms et al., 2017). A growth mindset, as discussed earlier, could be crucial in developing and supporting a positive sense of self and self-regulation. Previous literature has reported the contribution of a sense of self and self-regulatory processes to children’s participation (Goltz & Brown, 2014; Rosenberg, 2015; Rosenberg et al., 2017). However, the unique contribution of the growth mindset to different dimensions of participation remains unexplored. Hence, this study investigates the correlations between mindset and participation dimensions among healthy adolescents and explores the distinct contribution of mindset to the total explained variance in participation.
Method
Research Design
A cross-sectional design was used. Ethical approval was obtained from the Ethics Committee of the Department of Occupational Therapy, Tel Aviv University (No. 05–2022).
Participants
A convenience sampling method was used. Adolescents (N = 115; 52 males, 63 females), with a mean age of 13 yr, 8 mo (SD = 1 yr, 2 mo; range = 11.0–16.0), and their parents were recruited by word of mouth. All the adolescents were attending mainstream middle schools. Compatible with this initial study’s purpose, adolescents with any medical or developmental disabilities as reported by their parents were excluded from the study. Most families (81%) lived in the inner city, and 34% lived in the suburbs. Most families (75%) had an above-average income, and only 4% had a lower income for the region. Most mothers (73%) had an academic degree (M years of education = 16.26, SD = 3.15).
Measurements
Mindset and Perseverance Questionnaire
The Mindset and Perseverance Questionnaire (MPQ; Verberg et al., 2019) is a self-report questionnaire designed to assess adolescents’ mindsets regarding their emotions and behavior, intelligence, and perseverance. It contains 18 statements (e.g., “I can learn to control how I feel; by practicing a lot, I will get better”) ranked on a 5-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). The MPQ generates three final scores on subscales measuring emotions and behavior (EB), intelligence (I), and perseverance (P). A higher score indicates a growth mindset (after recoding fixed mindset statements (e.g., “I can’t really change how I behave”). Adequate internal reliability was found for the present sample (for the MPQ–EB, MPQ–I, and MPQ–P, Cronbach’s αs = .62, .66, and .68, respectively). The construct validity of the MPQ was established by factor analysis, and significant correlations support its convergent validity with mental health and self-esteem (Verberg et al., 2019, 2022). The MPQ was translated into Hebrew by a bilingual occupational therapist. Two certified occupational therapists and two adolescents were interviewed to assess face validity and clarity.
Adolescence Participation Questionnaire
The Adolescence Participation Questionnaire (APQ) is a self-report questionnaire designed to assess adolescents’ participation in daily life activities. It comprises 51 activities (basic and instrumental daily activities, sleep, leisure, social participation, education, and work or volunteering). For each activity, the examinee replies with regard to frequency, on a scale ranging from 0 (never) to 5 (every day); independence, on a scale ranging from 1 (dependent) to 6 (fully independent); enjoyment, on a scale ranging from 1 (lowest) to 6 (highest level of enjoyment); and satisfaction, on a scale ranging from 1 (lowest level of satisfaction) to 6 (highest level of satisfaction). The final scores are for diversity (the total number of activities in which the adolescent takes part (maximum = 51), mean frequency, mean independence, mean enjoyment, and mean satisfaction. Adequate internal reliability was found for the present sample (for frequency, independence, enjoyment, and satisfaction in each occupational domain, Cronbach’s αs = .35–.91). In a preliminary validity study, construct validity was demonstrated by known group differences, and significant correlations were found with the Adaptive Behavior Assessment System (Cikk, 2022).
Procedure
Data were collected by occupational therapy students who were trained and supervised by the author (Limor Rosenberg). The training sessions lasted at least 3 hr and encompassed the study’s protocol, ethics, measurements, and coding. The participants were recruited in the community by word of mouth. Information about the study’s purpose and procedure was provided to the parents and adolescents. If they agreed to participate in the study, an exact time for an encounter was set. At the beginning, the parents gave their informed consent and completed a sociodemographic questionnaire. Adolescents agreed to participate in the study by signing an assent form. Each adolescent was assessed individually in an online encounter on a secured platform (Zoom). Half of the participants completed the APQ and then the MPQ, and vice versa for the second half to avoid the order effect. In addition, for the determination of whether mindset contributes to actual performance, the participants performed a task-persistence test (data not reported here). The examiners similarly presented the questionnaires to all participants and explained the instructions following a protocol.
Data Analysis
Descriptive statistics were used to explore the sample’s sociodemographic characteristics and the final scores on the MPQ and APQ. Differences between male and female participants in the MPQ and APQ final scores were assessed using a multivariate analysis of variance. To test the correlations among the research variables, Pearson correlation coefficients were used (<.3 = small, .3–.5 = medium, and >.5 = large; Cohen, 1988). To assess the unique contribution of mindset to the total explained variance of participation measures, five multiple linear regressions were calculated using the Enter method (in this method, all the explanatory variables are entered in a single step) to explain the diversity, frequency, independence, enjoyment, and satisfaction of participation. For the prevention of multicollinearity, no variance inflation factor exceeds 1.18. IBM SPSS Statistics (Version 25) was used for all the statistical analyses. The level of significance was set at .05 for all tests.
Results
Descriptive Statistics
Preliminary analysis revealed no differences between male and female participants in final scores on the MPQ, F(3, 111) = 0.317, p = .82; and on the APQ, F(5, 109) = 0.460, p = .81. Descriptive statistics for the outcome measures (APQ) and explanatory variables (MPQ) of the whole sample are presented in Table 1. Participation measures reflect a relatively high level of participation accomplishment, as expected for typically developing adolescents. Although the participants were almost fully independent and satisfied with their participation, they scored significantly lower on enjoyment. The MPQ results show that the lowest scores were reported for mindset regarding intelligence.
Raw Scores of Outcome Measures and Explanatory Variables
Note. N = 115. APQ = Adolescence Participation Questionnaire; EB = Emotion and Behavior subscale; I = Intelligence subscale; Max = maximum; Mdn = median; Min = minimum; MPQ = Mindset Perseverance Questionnaire; P = Perseverance subscale.
Correlations Between the Research Variables
Table 2 presents the correlations between all the research variables. As adolescents grew older, their independence in participation increased. Mindsets regarding emotions and behavior and perseverance were positively and moderately associated with all participation measures aside from the diversity measure. Mindset regarding intelligence was not associated with participation.
Correlations Between the Study’s Variables
Note. N = 115. APQ = Adolescence Participation Questionnaire; EB = Emotions and Behavior subscale; I = Intelligence subscale; MPQ = Mindset Perseverance Questionnaire; P = Perseverance subscale.
*p < .05. **p < .01.
Regression Analysis
Regression analysis was used to explore the unique contribution of age and mindsets to the total explained variance of adolescents’ participation. On the basis of the first-order correlations found (Table 2), five regressions were conducted to explain participation diversity, frequency, independence, enjoyment, and satisfaction. The regression results presented in Table 3 indicate that the explanatory variables had a significant modest contribution of 6%–13% to the total explained variance of adolescents’ participation frequency, independence, and enjoyment. Of note, mindset regarding perseverance was found to be the primary predictor.
Model Summary for Predicting Participation Diversity, Frequency, Independence, Enjoyment, and Satisfaction
Note. N = 115. APQ = Adolescence Participation Questionnaire; EB = Emotions and Behavior subscale; I = Intelligence subscale; MPQ = Mindset Perseverance Questionnaire; P = Perseverance scale.
*p < .05. **p < .01. ***p < .001.
Discussion
The study’s purpose was to assess the unique contribution of mindsets regarding emotions and behavior, intelligence, and perseverance to the total explained variance of participation dimensions among healthy adolescents. Mindset regarding perseverance was found to be the primary predictor of participation frequency, independence, enjoyment, and satisfaction. Adolescents’ enjoyment of participation was also explained by their mindset regarding emotions and behavior. However, adolescent participation diversity could not be explained by mindsets. Of note, mindset regarding intelligence did not contribute to any aspect of participation.
Perseverance refers to the tendency to work hard even in the face of setbacks. It was found to be a predictor of performance; any process of practicing new skills may involve obstacles and failures that require persistence (Credé et al., 2017). Among adolescents, the contribution of perseverance was studied mainly in the context of academic achievements (Lam & Zhou, 2019 ; Tang et al., 2019). However, beyond the educational context, the present research findings highlight the importance of mindset regarding perseverance in a broader context of participation. In this study, participation measures were calculated on the basis of the adolescents’ participation in occupations that included activities of daily living, instrumental activities of daily living, education, sleep, leisure, social participation, work, and volunteering. The findings show that participation frequency, independence, enjoyment, and satisfaction increased as the mindset regarding perseverance and effort increased. It is assumed that adolescents with a growth mindset regarding perseverance and effort believe that their effort will pay off, that they would not avoid participation and would participate in daily activities at a higher frequency. Through intensive participation, they would gain competence, supporting their independence and satisfaction. Experiencing setbacks as an opportunity for learning rather than as a hard feeling of frustration would account for their increased enjoyment. Thus, the findings highlight the importance of beliefs regarding perseverance and effort for both the attendance and involvement dimensions of participation.
Mindset regarding emotions and behavior contributed to the total explained variance of adolescents’ enjoyment in their participation. Enjoyment of participation is a subjective aspect of participation that may reflect the level of involvement or engagement in activities (Adair et al., 2018). It was found to be affected by personal factors such as age, gender, disability status, competence, skills, and preferences (King et al., 2009; Rosenberg et al., 2013). In the present study, participants reported their beliefs in their ability to learn how to control and change their feelings and behavior; as these beliefs increased, so did their enjoyment while participating. The findings are compatible with previous results among elementary school-age children, which showed that children’s socioemotional characteristics predicted self-reported enjoyment of participation (Rosenberg & Bart, 2016).
Previous studies revealed associations between mindset, mental health, and behavior (Burnette et al., 2020). More specifically, Walker and Jiang (2022) found a negative association between externalizing behaviors and a growth mindset regarding thoughts, feelings, and behavior. Hence, it is suggested that the feeling of enjoyment while participating in diverse activities could be based on good mental health and fewer behavioral problems. In addition, previous literature revealed associations between mindset and well-being. For example, Chan et al. (2022) found that mindset regarding personality traits predicted environmental well-being (adolescents’ confidence in their ability to manage daily situations). It may be assumed that such an association could be expressed in a feeling of enjoyment when participating in daily activities. Hence, the findings highlight the importance of beliefs regarding the malleability of emotions and behavior (i.e., self-regulation processes) for enjoyment, which is a dimension of “involvement” in participation.
In this study, mindset regarding intelligence was not associated with adolescents’ participation. In contrast, a growing body of literature supports the contribution of mindset regarding intelligence to adolescents’ school achievements (Dweck et al., 2014). Moreover, intervention programs developed to increase students’ growth mindset regarding the malleability of their cognitive ability were effective in increasing school achievements (Yeager et al., 2019). To explain the gap, it is suggested that, whereas school achievements are linked to cognitive ability, participation is detached from ability. The ICF–CY (WHO, 2007) differentiates between capacity and performance. Capacity is an individual’s ability to execute a task or action within a standardized environment (e.g., school achievements). Performance is what an individual does in their current environment and can also be understood as participation (ICF–CY; WHO, 2007, pp. 12–13). Therefore, mindset regarding intelligence (cognitive ability) did not contribute to adolescents’ participation, which is their performance and involvement in life situations (measured by diversity, frequency, independence, enjoyment, and satisfaction). Thus, the findings show that mindset regarding intelligence, although very important in the school context, is less crucial in different life areas of adolescents.
From the five aspects of participation measured in this study, only the diversity of participation was not explained by any mindset. Previous literature suggests that the diversity of participation may be affected by environmental factors (e.g., family income, parenting style) more than by personal characteristics (Engel-Yeger et al., 2007; Rosenberg et al., 2013).
Limitations and Future Research
One limitation of the study is that adolescents’ participation and their mindsets were assessed by self-report questionnaires; when administered in one prolonged meeting using the Zoom platform, responses might have been influenced by fatigue. In addition, the generalizability of the findings is limited because of the participants’ affluent sociodemographic background. Most of the parents had an academic education, and most of the families had an above-average income. Further studies are warranted with diverse populations. In this initial study, in addition to mindsets, no control was applied regarding other predictors that might affect adolescents’ participation. Future studies should assess mindsets in the context of multivariate analysis (e.g., executive functions, performance skills). In addition, further studies should assess separately and uncover the contributions of mindset to participation in specific occupations such as activities of daily living, instrumental activities of daily living, education, sleep, leisure, social participation, work, and volunteering.
Implications for Occupational Therapy Practice
This study has the following implications for occupational therapy practice: ▪ The findings can be incorporated into interventions aimed at promoting adolescents’ optimal participation. ▪ Occupational therapy practitioners should educate their adolescent clients to recognize the concept of mindsets and the importance of developing a growth mindset. ▪ Occupational therapy practitioners can promote adolescents’ optimal participation by developing their growth mindset regarding perseverance and effort. This may be achieved, for instance, by adopting challenging tabletop activities in the treatment session and then reflecting on generalizability to everyday activities such as solving a complex math problem or taking part in a sports team. ▪ Occupational therapy practitioners may consider adolescents’ growth mindset regarding emotions and behavior as a possible pathway for enhancing enjoyment within participation in daily activities of living. This may be achieved, for instance, by reflecting on the dynamic nature of emotions.
Conclusions
Mindsets regarding emotions and behavior, and especially beliefs regarding perseverance and effort, have a modest but significant contribution to different aspects of adolescents’ participation. Occupational therapy practitioners may find the growth mindset theory capable of enriching their interventions aimed at promoting adolescents’ optimal participation.
Footnotes
Acknowledgments
I thank all the parents and children who consented to participate in the study and all the devoted occupational therapy students who participated in the data collection.