Abstract
This study contributes to the body of knowledge on what constitutes adult play as well as the experiences of adults during preferred play activities.
Play is often studied in children; however, play in adulthood is less understood (Proyer, 2017). Some theorists have defined play as a form or style of behavior, whereas others have linked it to self-realization (Arrasvuori et al., 2011; Haakana & Sorjonen, 2011; Henricks, 2014; Kerr & Apter, 1991; Proyer, 2017). Still others have linked play to playfulness, the ability to make any activity more enjoyable and entertaining (Barnett, 2007; Proyer & Jehle, 2013). Proyer and Jehle’s (2013) literature review of adult playfulness as a personality characteristic identified five pertinent variables: humor, cheerfulness, disinhibition, expressiveness, other-directedness, and intellectual creativity. In the current study, we conceptualized adult play as experiences reported by adults as preferred occupations, regardless of whether they are conventionally thought of as play.
Study of Play as Experience
Play experiences contribute to self-realization, well-being, and life satisfaction (Goldmintz & Schafer, 2007; Henricks, 2014; Magnuson & Barnett, 2013; Outley & McKenzie, 2007; Proyer, 2013). A sense of well-being is considered a universal phenomenon that lies at the heart of happiness. The World Happiness Report compared levels of well-being in different nations on the basis of objective and subjective measures (Helliwell et al., 2023). The experiential characteristics of freedom that have been present in well-being studies—(1) the capability to make choices and (2) positive affect—are also considered experiences linked to play. The link between play and different forms of well-being has also been addressed in the literature on adult rehabilitation (Lewis et al., 2011; Tonkin & Whitaker, 2016).
Researchers use many methods to study play in children and adults. Observation is the most common method used to study children’s play. The view of play as an observable activity is often linked to overt expressions of pleasure or playfulness. Observational studies of play focus on activities the researcher describes as play, regardless of the participants’ experiences. This method poses a problem, because many play experiences (e.g., intrinsic motivation, pleasure) are not necessarily evident through observation. For example, in the current literature on adult play, activities such as mobile instant messaging (Lin & Li, 2014), gambling (Haakana & Sorjonen, 2011; Smith & Abt, 1984), sexual activities (Brown & Stenros, 2018), team sports (Kerr, 1988; Stenner et al., 2020), and video games (Deterding, 2018) have all been considered forms of adult play even when they may not have included the experiential characteristics described in the literature as play.
Other methods used to study play include surveys (Helliwell et al., 2023 ; Nikou et al., 2018) and semistructured interviews, both of which focus on the importance of canvassing participants’ perspectives when playing (Blanche, 1998, 2002; Lewis et al., 2011; Lewis & Rosie, 2012). These methods have sometimes been geared toward understanding the utilitarian value of play activities (Lewis et al., 2011), the impact of playing on wellness (Nikou et al., 2018), or the subjective experiences linked to a sense of happiness and well-being (Helliwell et al., 2023).
The literature provides theoretical analyses of what constitutes adult play but is limited as to the subjective experiences linked to play. There is thus a need to move the discussion toward providing empirical support for the experiential qualities of adult play in everyday life. In this study, we focused on the experiential qualities linked to chosen activities that include the experiences of play described in the literature, conceptualized as adult play in this study, and used a modified version of a preexisting tool, the revised Daily Occupational Experience Survey (DOESr). The purpose of this study was to understand whether the experiences described in the literature occur during participants’ preferred activities and how these experiences group together.
Method
The study was conducted in three phases: (1) instrument revision based on the original qualitative study (Blanche, 1998), (2) data collection via Qualtrics, and (3) statistical analysis. The institutional review board of the University of Southern California approved the study before its initiation.
Instrument Revision Based on a Pilot Study
The initial construction of the DOES was based on an extensive review of the literature on play experiences (Blanche, 1998). The original tool consisted of 13 questions focusing on dichotomous pairs of experiences (i.e., pleasurable vs. miserable, spontaneous vs. planned, exciting vs. boring) that targeted specific activities identified by each participant as their preferred ones (Blanche, 1998). For the current study, the items were reviewed to ensure that they represented the play literature (Table 1). The response categories were revised to be rated on a 5-point Likert scale (in the Appendix) with two separate items representing the most dichotomous characteristics included in the original study. One dichotomous characteristic was removed (“Makes me miserable”) because the updated research questions automatically eliminate any activity that is not desired. In addition, six items were added to represent the six patterns of experiences previously identified by the qualitative study. The final instrument, the DOESr, is a 31-item self-report survey that uses a 5-point Likert scale (1 = strongly disagree to 5 = strongly agree) to measure experiential quality when one engages in a preferred activity (adult play experience). It contains a total of 31 experiences (see the Appendix).
Characteristics of Play and the DOES-r Items That Address Them
Note. DOESr = Daily Occupational Experience Survey–revised.
Data Collection
We started development of the survey by guiding each participant to identify an activity that is most meaningful to them, that is, an activity they considered to be their play, preferred activity, or passion. Once the occupation was identified, the participants answered the DOESr questions to describe their experiences with the chosen occupation. To include all the characteristics of play previously derived from the literature the questions aimed at obtaining information about the motivation to engage in an activity, the experiences derived while participating in the activity, the experiential outcomes derived from the activity, and the perception of the experiential requirements of the activity as identified by each participant (i.e., the activity requires imagination, mental activity). The motivation for selecting an activity (i.e., “I feel creative,” “It is something I do well,” “I like the intensity of the activity”) was included to examine the veracity of the patterns identified in the qualitative pilot study (e.g., Creativity–Adventure, Restoration, Ludos). Having a question that targeted the previous patterns and a question about the experiences previously identified as part of each pattern allowed us to test the previous model and assess the veracity of the data.
Qualtrics, a web-based platform, was used for data collection. The link to the DOESr tool was distributed via snowball sampling to our personal and professional contacts.
Participants
The characteristics of the 491 participants (age = 18–64 yr) who completed the survey are shown in Table 2. The mean age was 36.1 yr (SD = 12.8). More than half of the respondents were married or living with a partner (55%), followed by those who were unmarried or single (36%). Most (84%) had college or postgraduate degrees. They represented a variety of professions and activity choices.
Characteristics of the Survey Respondents
Note. N = 491.
Analysis
We used an exploratory factor analysis to identify constructs and the underlying structure of the items. The total number of factors was determined by factor loadings, eigenvalues, and a scree plot. Factors were retained if an eigenvalue was >1, in accordance with Gorsuch’s (1983) recommendations. A mean score for each factor was calculated, and internal consistency was computed using a Cronbach’s α coefficient for each factor.
Results
The results of the factor analysis showed the emergence of five factors, not six as found in the original qualitative study (Blanche, 1998), consisting of homogeneous variables—Creativity–Adventure, Restoration, Deep Engagement, Ludos, and Mastery—and suggested that play experiences are grouped in patterns similar to those previously identified (Blanche, 1998). However, one of the experiential characteristics previously identified as part of the Adventure pattern factored with Creativity. In summary, the analysis yielded five factors: Creativity–Adventure, Restoration, Deep Engagement, Ludos, and Mastery (Table 3). Each factor is discussed in the sections that follow.
Five Factors of the DOESr
Creativity–Adventure
This factor included the experiences of imagination, mental activity, exposure to new experiences, spontaneity, lightheartedness, and doing for others. It also included experiences that had previously been identified as representing the generation of novelty (Creativity) and exposure to novelty (Adventure) and thus was named Creativity–Adventure. Previous research has shown that children’s play is associated with creativity in adulthood (Capps, 2012; Russ, 2013); however, creative occupations occur in everyday life and do not necessarily lead to the production of works of art (Blanche, 2007). In this study, the participants identified as creative activities such as painting, knitting, and gardening.
Restoration
The factor named Restoration loaded with activity experiences described as relaxing, involving lightheartedness, doing for oneself, and allowing freedom (Table 3). Relaxing activities that strongly loaded onto this factor included reading, cooking, and singing. In the literature, relaxing and recovery activities are considered to be freely chosen ones that occur as part of leisure/off-work time (Molina et al., 2016). These relaxing and tranquil activities have also been linked to happiness (Liu & Da, 2020).
Deep Engagement
This factor, previously referred to as heightened self-awareness (Blanche, 1998), represented exciting pleasurable experiences. This factor loaded with intensity as well as feeling energized (see Table 3). Examples of occupations that were identified as intense included surfing, Bikram yoga, and rock climbing. This factor is related, to a lesser degree, to what has been described in the adult literature as “deep play” (Geertz, 1973/2005) that is, play in which the stakes are high from a utilitarian standpoint, and some degree of risk-taking is present (Geertz, 1973/2005; Goold, 2014).
Ludos
The fourth factor, named Ludos, represented the experience of pure play as a nonserious pleasurable activity that includes qualities such as lacking a clear purpose (see Table 3). Activities identified as lacking a clear purpose included listening to music, watching TV, and dining out. In the literature, activities such as improv theater (Ocobock et al., 2020) and video games (Novak & Soytur, 2021) would fit into this category.
Mastery
The fifth factor, Mastery, represented the opposite of Ludos. This factor loaded with pleasure derived from doing something the person knows well, is considered a routine activity, and is labeled as necessary. Activities identified as enjoyable because the person knows them well included flying a helicopter, searching the internet, and playing tennis. This factor, which was the one with the lowest internal consistency, is linked to Csikszentmihalyi’s (1990) concept of flow and is sometimes related to enjoyable work experiences (Csikszentmihalyi & La Fevre, 1989).
The overall internal consistency for the entire survey of 31 items was .70, which is considered good (Kline, 1999). Each factor’s internal consistency, mean, and standard deviation are shown in Table 4. The internal consistency results for Creativity–Adventure, Restoration, and Deep Engagement were acceptable. According to Tavakol and Dennick’s (2011) guidelines, the low internal consistency for Ludos and Mastery could be due to fewer questions, lower interrelatedness between items, or possibly heterogeneous constructs, so further examinations are needed before removal of any items that may be attributed to the low coefficients.
Means and Standard Deviations for Each Factor and Internal Consistency of Factors
Discussion
Understanding the experiences linked to play in adults is important for helping people choose activities that nurture their own predisposition toward specific enjoyable occupations and play. Our results suggest that the experiential of play in the literature, conceptualized as adult play in this study, are grouped into five patterns. Moreover, the DOESr can help practitioners identify groupings of experiences that clients find enjoyable and, in turn, assist them in finding other activities that provide the same experiences. The five factors identified in this study partially support the results of previous qualitative studies that have focused on the experiences linked to adult play (Blanche, 1998, 2002, 2007).
Limitations
This study has three main limitations. First, the sample was limited to people with at least a high school diploma. We did not include people with lower education levels; hence, the results may not be generalizable to those who have not completed high school. Second, because participation in this study was voluntary, the results reflect only the responses of people willing to share their personal preferences related to play experiences. Thus, people who were less flexible or unwilling to share their experiences may have been inadvertently excluded because of incomplete data. Third and finally, the participants were limited to people currently living and working in urban and semiurban areas in the United States. Therefore, the findings may not reflect the opinions of people who live in rural and remote areas of the country, or in countries outside of the United States.
Implications for Occupational Therapy Practice
The study of adult play is a justifiable end in itself because it may be essential in helping clients maintain a healthy lifestyle and developing new avenues of occupational therapy practice (Parham, 1996). Bundy (1993) stated that if play is the purest expression of who a person is, then when it is lost to a disability the person has lost an essential part of the self. However, only when occupational therapy practitioners identify how an activity benefits the person will they be able to help their clients recapture the benefit through alternative activities (Bundy, 1993). Several researchers have highlighted the importance of play in health, wellness, and the rehabilitation process (Lewis & Rosie, 2012; Saywell et al., 2017; Tonkin & Whitaker, 2016). This study contributes to an increased understanding of the experiences linked to intrinsically motivated enjoyable occupations and play experiences so clinicians can systematically apply them in occupational therapy practice.
Conclusion
This is one of the first empirical studies to focus on the experiences of adult play in daily life. The results support the existence of play experiences described in the literature as occurring during the performance of preferred activities conceptualized as adult play. Moreover, this study supports the grouping of these experiences into five distinct sets of experiences (Creativity–Adventure, Restoration, Deep Engagement, Ludos, Mastery). It is important to clarify that these factors are not exclusive and that play occupations may include experiences that are central to more than one factor (i.e., Creativity–Adventure and Mastery, Deep Engagement and Creativity; Blanche, 1998). By understanding and embracing adult play’s experiential qualities and patterns, people can fully reap the benefits of play for personal growth, well-being, and overall life satisfaction.
Reconceptualizing adult play linked to an array of experiences as an occupation is important in three ways. First, it adds to the discussion about moving away from a divisive stance regarding the defining characteristics of work, leisure, or play, given that most adult occupations include experiences shared across many forms of occupations. The literature has recognized the existence of hybrid forms of occupations, including work made playful (Bowman, 1987; Volkwein, 1991), play as ritual and ritual as play (Turner, 1974), play as leisure (Argyle, 1996), play as work (Theberge, 1978), and other activities that may not be considered play but have many characteristics of play. In occupational therapy, play is classified as an occupation, and as such it is deemed as bringing meaning and purpose to life (American Occupational Therapy Association, 2020).
Second, understanding the experiential attributes of play may help people make their daily tasks more enjoyable and contribute to wellness by including play experiences. For example, in this study the participants identified reading a book, going to the movies, and doing yoga as the daily occupations they looked forward to; these choices include the experiential characteristics of play. A person’s culture, physical environment, personality, and other personal and contextual factors influence choices in play. Future research that examines the impact of personal attributes, such as sensory processing and motor abilities, on occupational preferences is needed.
Third and finally, research on the link between the use of play activities and health is increasing (Kowal et al., 2020; Ocobock et al., 2020; Saywell et al., 2017; Tonkin & Whitaker, 2016), thereby contributing to an understanding of the transformative nature of play (Goods, 2016; Henricks, 2010; Ross et al., 2020) and the fluidity of occupational experiences previously identified (Blanche, 1998, 2002). This can help clinicians transform occupations into play as part of the rehabilitation process.
Footnotes
Appendix: Survey
Activity: __________________________
Now rate the experience of that activity using the following key:
1. Strongly disagree
2. Moderately disagree
3. Neutral
4. Moderately agree
5. Strongly agree
“Neutral” implies no judgment either way. Try to use the “neutral” rating as little as possible.