Journal of the Palaeontological Society of India

India possesses an extraordinary, yet largely untold, story of the co-evolution of Earth as a planet and life upon it. The crescendo of this story is the formation and later break-up of the supercontinent Gondwana, followed by the Indian subcontinent’s solitary northward drift as an island landmass. This remarkable journey through diverse climates profoundly shaped its history as a unique travelling nursery of plant and animal life, a story etched in the fossils discovered across the subcontinent. India’s Phanerozoic rocks hold globally significant palaeontological treasures, from dinosaur nesting sites and the earliest odd-toed mammals to ancient walking whales and some of the planet’s oldest plant groups. Furthermore, the older Precambrian shield regions offer a glimpse into life before complex organisms evolved and are also vital repositories of mineral wealth. Astonishingly and sadly, despite this rich palaeontological and geological heritage, India lacks a central Natural History Museum to safeguard and showcase these treasures for public education and appreciation. To address this critical gap, the establishment of The Indian Museum of Earth (TIME) has been initiated through collaborative efforts supported by the office of the Principal Scientific Adviser to the Government of India. This account details the journey so far in creating this vital institution.

This article highlights the changing face of the Lesser Himalayan geology and the evolution of geological theories and methodologies, showcasing how contemporary research has built upon or challenged earlier ideas and has witnessed significant advancements in our understanding of the geological processes that shape this region. The contributions of the initial stalwarts of the pre- and post-independence, and later bold sceptics, but their concepts failed, and the recent developments are concisely summarised in this article.

The early Eocene period marks a critical juncture in India’s geological and biological history, as the subcontinent drifted northwards as a physically isolated landmass before colliding with Asia, influencing global evolutionary patterns. The past two decades have seen significant advances in the documentation of India’s Eocene mammals and our understanding of their evolutionary and palaeobiogeographic significance. This article presents an overview of recent advances in our knowledge of early Eocene terrestrial mammals of India and their role in addressing questions of global importance, particularly in the context of India’s biogeographic relations and the early evolutionary history of perissodactyls, primates, artiodactyls, and bats. We contend that taxa with the hitherto underemphasized Asian affinities form a significant component of the Indian early Eocene mammal fauna, constraining the timing of India-Asia contact to ~55 Ma or earlier. On the other hand, the consistently favoured idea of India-Europe biotic interchange during this interval is weakly supported, since the purported affinities of several Indian early Eocene mammalian taxa exclusively with the European forms are now questionable.

Studying pollen and spores preserved in sedimentary archives has emerged as a pivotal method for reconstructing past environments and understanding the long-term dynamics of Earth’s ecosystems. This study explores the utility of pollen and spores as proxies for palaeoenvironmental conditions, highlighting the methodological advancements in their extraction and analysis that have enhanced our ability to interpret historical climate and vegetation patterns. We can infer a wide range of ecological and climatic parameters through detailed sediment analysis, from shifts in vegetation communities and biodiversity to changes in hydrological cycles and fire regimes. These innovations provide a more comprehensive understanding of past biodiversity and ecosystem responses to climatic and anthropogenic changes. This study also discusses the implications of these findings for modern environmental management, including applications in climate change adaptation, biodiversity conservation, ecosystem restoration and sustainable land use planning. By integrating palaeoenvironmental insights into contemporary management practices, we can better predict and mitigate the impacts of current and future environmental changes, ensuring more resilient and sustainable ecosystems.

The present work recognised a well-preserved suite of trace fossils including Catenichnus isp., Cruziana problematica, Cruziana tenella, Diplichnites isp., Monomorphichnus lineatus, Planolites montanus, Rusophycus isp., ?Rosselia socialis, serially repeated Rusophycus eutendorfensis intergrading Cruziana tenella, and ?Treptichnus cf. pedum from the Lower Cambrian Member-A of the Dhaulagiri Formation (Tal Group) in the Mussoorie syncline. Trace fossils from the Member-A of the Dhaulagiri Formation are grouped into the Cruziana ichnofacies, and trace makers mainly are epi- and endobenthic polychaete worms, trilobites and arthropods. Sedimentological studies indicate the presence of lenticular and flaser bedding, trough cross laminations, trough cross stratifications, and micro-conglomerate. Facies analysis shows that the trace fossils are preserved in a heterolithic succession of silty shale-siltstone—and minor sandstone facies of a mixed flat environment of a tidal flat setting. The shallow penetration depth, the small size of burrows (especially Rusophycus eutendorfensis intergrading Cruziana tenella), and low ichno-diversity are indicative of a stressed environment during the deposition of the Member-A of the Dhaulagiri Formation. Distribution of trace fossils concerning the Ediacaran-Cambrian boundary in the Mussoorie syncline indicates that so far traces are not recorded near the boundary interval, and known records are mostly from the Arenaceous Member (Deo-Ka-Tibba Formation), which is much above the Ediacaran-Cambrian boundary interval.

The Sonia Sandstone of the Jodhpur Group, Marwar Supergroup in western Rajasthan, has unveiled many fossil assemblages, significantly advancing our comprehension of the Ediacaran biotic diversity and palaeoecological dynamics. Recent field discoveries within the Sonia Sandstone include a diverse suite of Ediacaran fossils, such as Tirasiana qingzhenensis, Hiemalora stellaris, Pteridinium sp., Finkoella ukrainica, Finkoella oblonga, Arumberia banski, coiled form, bizarre form A, Quaestio simpsonorum, and jellyfish-like impressions. These fossils, preserved predominantly as positive epirelief on the bedding plane, exhibit an extraordinary range of morphological intricacies, suggesting a multifaceted and dynamic Ediacaran ecosystem. This unprecedented palaeontological record sheds light on the ecological complexity and evolutionary trajectories during the Ediacaran Period, contributing to the broader understanding of early metazoan diversification and sedimentary biogenic processes.

Chert and chert-phosphorite deposits of Lower Tal Formation have yielded new records of microfossil assemblage containing biomineralised articulated sponge Paradiagoniella sp., tubular microfossil Megathrix longus and other organic-walled microfossils from the Lesser Himalaya. Their occurrence indicates biostratigraphic correlation of Lower Tal Formation with Yanjiahe and Chiungchussu formations of Yangtze Platform in South China, bracketing the age between ~514 and 529 Ma. Their presence also suggests shallow marine oxic depositional environment. The geochemical characteristics of Lower Tal chert are compared with Cambrian chert from Yanjiahe and Yutrus formations (China). Their geochemical analyses indicate deposition in suboxic to oxic environments with clastic input close to the continental shelf. The present study suggests that Northern India was located near South China during the early Cambrian when suboxic to oxic conditions prevailed within the stratified Ocean. Here, abundant oxygen and silica-secreting organisms residing in the shallow marine regions assisted in the radical evolutionary change that occurred as the Cambrian Explosion of life.

Detailed sedimentological and biostratigraphic studies on the Infra-Cambrian-Cambrian Marwar Supergroup in the key well BGW-A (depth-interval 481–1123 m) in Bikaner–Nagaur Basin have provided a fresh geological insight for depositional facies, reservoir properties and precise age of the different lithounits of this Infra-Cambrian-Cambrian sequence of the well. Jodhpur Formation (1123–1103 m), the lowermost lithounit of the sequence with heavy oil reservoir in this well and Lophosphaeridium-Leiosphaeridia rich acritarch assemblage of Early Ediacaran (635–590 Ma), mainly comprises reddish brown to ash-grey coarse to medium grained sandstones and grey shale. Lithological features and associated acritarch flora suggest a littoral to marginal marine environment for the Jodhpur Formation in a foreshore depositional set-up. The succeeding Bilara Formation in this well (1103–1086 m) mainly includes finely laminated bioturbated dolostones and thin black shales, and is marked by the Lophosphaeridium and Vandalosphaeridium-rich assemblage, indicating Late Ediacaran (550–541 Ma) age with inner neritic depositional environment in a supra-tidal set-up. The overlying depth interval of 1086–920 m is represented by the Hanseran Evaporite Formation and characterised by interbedded dolostone, anhydrite/halite and reddish-brown mottled claystone. This lithounit is marked by the Dictyotidium, Asteridium, Comasphaeridium and Annulum-dominated acritarch assemblages of Early Cambrian, indicative of an inner neritic depositional environment. The reddish-brown sandstone mainly represents the overlying Nagaur Formation (920–727 m) and intercalated siltstones/shales with poor microfossil contents. It is inferred to be of the upper Early Cambrian age. Upper Carbonate Formation (727–481 m), the youngest lithounit of the Marwar Supergroup, includes a thick succession of dolostone and dolomitic limestone. Lower (727–634 m) and middle (634–574 m) parts of this unit are marked by the Cristallinium and Cymatiosphaera dominated acritarch assemblage of Middle Cambrian, while the upper part (574–481 m) of this lithounit shows the notable presence of Late Cambrian-Tremadocian marker acritarch taxa, like Buedingiisphaeridium papillatum, Striatotheca rarirrugulata and Dorsennidium minutum, suggesting a similar age. Petrographic and SEM studies reveal that the sandstones in the Jodhpur Formation show moderate-to-good intergranular porosity. However, Bilara and Hanseran Evaporite formations showed tightness of the sandstone/siltstone reservoirs, which are cemented mainly by anhydrite, giving rise to destruction of the porosity. Nagaur Formation also has very poor porosity, while moderate intercrystalline porosity is observed in the Upper Carbonate Formation. Associated grey shales/siltstones of Jodhpur and Bilara formations in this well have moderate-to-rich sapropelic organic matters, with TAI varying from 2.50 to 2.60, and were in the generative oil window during Permian to Jurassic with local hydrocarbon migrations.

A well-diversified assemblage of plant megafossils has been recovered from the Lower Kamthi sediments of Madhupur Village in the Talcher Basin, Odisha, India. The collection includes representatives from Sphenophyllales (Trizygia speciosa), Filicales (Neomariopteris hughesii), Equisetales (Schizoneura gondwanensis and equisetaceous stems), Ginkgoales (Rhipidopsis gondwanensis) and Glossopteridales. The Glossopteridales are particularly abundant, comprising Glossopteris (45 species), Palaeovittaria kurzii, scale leaves, fructifications and stem casts. While a previous publication has addressed the other plant groups, this study focuses on the scale leaves and fertile parts. A total of 268 fossil impressions of Glossopterid fertile parts have been documented from the Lower Kamthi sediments. The assemblage includes 10 genera and 14 species, including Denkania indica, Dictyopteridium feistmanteli, Eretmonia emarginata, E. hinjridaensis, E. ovata, E. utkalensis, Glossotheca immanis, G. orissiana, Jambadostrobus pretiosus, Partha spathulata, Plumsteadiostrobus pretiosus, Scirroma ventilebra, Scutum sahnii and Venustostrobus indicus. This study examines the taxonomy, morphology and stratigraphic distribution of these fertile parts across various Indian Gondwana formations, focusing on their morpho-taxonomic characteristics and occurrence within the Permian strata of the Indian subcontinent. Biostratigraphic significance, palaeoclimate and palaeovegetation have also been discussed briefly.

Despite evidence of palaeo-wildfires during the formation of Indian coal deposits, studies on their fire intensity, temporal variability and relation to palaeo-oxygen levels remain limited. A comprehensive investigation of wildfire signatures in Indian Permian coals is required to bridge this knowledge gap. The Carboniferous to Permian Period is characterised by prevalent coal formation and a substantial occurrence of palaeo-wildfires. However, the occurrence of these wildfires and their spatial distribution exhibited temporal variability throughout this period. An inclusive investigation (including petrological compositions, especially inertinites and scanning electron microscopy (SEM)) was executed on coal samples from Bastacolla Mines, Jharia Coalfield, India, to investigate variations in palaeo-wildfire signature and palaeo-wildfire temperature during peat formation. The dominance of vitrinite with a significant inertinite content (as a by-product of palaeo-wildfire) in studied coal samples reveals that wildfire activity occurred during peat formation. The inertinite reflectance values ranging from 1.42% to 2.62% (mean: 1.88%) and 1.20% to 2.48% (mean: 1.67%) in Bottom-II and Top-III seam, respectively, indicate wildfire in Permian was dominated by mainly ground fires and partially surface fires. SEM images show various typical structures, including cellular/fibrous structure, uniseriate and biseriate tracheid, indicating the dominance of gymnosperm flora during peat formation. Further, the presence of typical structures by SEM, charcoal lenses on the sample surface (macroscopic) and high inertinite in investigated coal seams reveals the occurrence of wildfire during its formation. The significantly high atmospheric oxygen levels (pO₂˃23%) provide compelling evidence for frequent wildfires in the Jharia Coalfield during the coal-forming period.

The Himalayan orogeny played a pivotal role in shaping South Asia’s climatic and ecological evolution, leading to the deposition of approximately 6000 m of molasse sediments in the Himalayan Foreland Basin, known as the Siwalik Group. While fossil flora of the Siwalik sediments in western and eastern Himalaya has provided valuable insights into past vegetation shifts, the plant fossil record from eastern Nepal remains poorly documented. In this study, we describe fossil fern of Aspleniaceae and a leaf of Lagerstroemia (Lythraceae) from the Lower Siwalik sediments of the Kankai Mai River section, eastern Nepal. Aspleniaceae, a family of tropical and subtropical ferns and Lagerstroemia, a genus characteristic of tropical moist and dry deciduous forests, suggest a warm and humid climate with seasonal precipitation during the deposition period. The fossils and previously reported records from the region suggest that tropical evergreen to deciduous forest covered eastern Nepal during the Lower Siwalik period. The genus Lagerstroemia likely originated in India and diversified during the Paleogene, while the Aspleniaceae highlight potential phytogeographic connections between South Asia and Southeast Asia. These findings provide insights into possible migration routes of these taxa following the collision of the Indian and Eurasian plates.

The Lower Member of the Himmatnagar Sandstone Formation is exposed to the south of Sapteshwar between Sapteshwar and Kadoli in Sabarkantha District, North Gujarat, India. This sedimentary succession is approximately 17.5 metres thick and is rich in ichnofossils. The Lower Member primarily comprises a well-exposed sandstone sequence representing a shallow marine succession. The lower part of the Lower Member in the study area is characterised by the prevalence of Cruziana ichnofacies, indicating a middle to upper shoreface setting. This zone encompasses nine ichnotaxa, including Cochlichnus isp., Gyrochorte comosa, Laevicyclus mongraensis, Lockeia gigantus, Palaeophycus bolbitermilus, Palaeophycus tubularis, Phoebichnus minor, Thalassinoides horizontalis and Thalassinoides suevicus. Conversely, the upper part of the Lower Member comprises three ichnotaxa: Arenicolites isp., Monocraterion isp. and Skolithos linearis, which belong to the Skolithos ichnofacies suggesting upper shoreface to foreshore conditions of paleoenvironment.

The present study comprises the record of a silicified freshwater ostracod assemblage from a newly discovered intertrappean locality (late Cretaceous/early Paleocene), Chhindwara district, Madhya Pradesh. The use of energy dispersive X-ray analysis demonstrates that ostracod carapaces have been silicified, which is possible in relation to the circulation of generated silica-rich water that was formed by the adjacent Deccan volcanic terrain. The identified ostracods include 12 species of 11 genera. The endobenthic crawler Limnocytheridae (Frambocythere, Limnocythere and Gomphocythere) dominate the assemblage and indicate a freshwater body of standing water (lake or pond). The accompanying fish (Lepisosteus) and mollusk (Physa, Viviparus) specimens provide additional evidence for the environmental condition of the lake or large pond water. In addition, the taxa Gomphocythere, Paracypretta, Eucypris and Cypriodopsis support the endemism hypothesis, while the species Cypria, Limnocythere and Gomphocythere provide evidence in favour of the ‘Out-of-India’ idea.

Pycnodus was among the fish genera that successfully survived the Cretaceous-Palaeogene (K-Pg) mass extinction event. It was the longest existing and most adaptable taxon within the entire group of pycnodonts. The present study highlights the finding of pycnodont remains (prearticular dental plate and isolated teeth) from the Khuiala Formation (Early Eocene, Ypresian) and the Bandah Formation (Middle Eocene, Bartonian), Jaisalmer Basin, Rajasthan. The specimens from the Khuiala Formation are assigned to Pycnodus toliapicus, and those from the Bandah Formation are assigned to Pycnodus sp. The record of Pycnodus toliapicus is particularly significant as it is the only species from India based on a dental plate. It signifies the presence of pycnodonts in the seas east of the Tethys just before they got completely extinct worldwide.

Globally, the fossil record of the co-occurrence of alpheids (mainly claw fingertips) and gobiids (mainly otoliths) is a rarity. Herein, we record a diverse assemblage (comprising a total of nine species) of alpheid shrimps (based on fossilised claw fingertips) assigned to the genus Alpheus (including a new species: Alpheus indicus sp. nov.) from the early Miocene (Burdigalian) Quilon Formation, Kerala Basin, southwest India. These alpheid remains co-occur with fossil remains (mainly otoliths) of numerous gobiid fish genera, including Medoborichthys (represented by M. podolicus) within the Quilon Formation. This fossil evidence supports the idea that the mutualistic relationship(s) within these groups had developed before the Burdigalian. Based on the geographic distribution of alpheids and gobiids fossils, it is evident that these groups quite likely thrived persistently in a mutualistic relationship(s) within the shallow coasts of the Paratethys Sea and the Indian Ocean realms during the Neogene (Aquitanian to Burdigalian). Further, older (Paleogene) records from the subcontinent are certainly warranted to provide support to any argument in favour of the enhancement of a complex snapping claw within alpheids and/or the development of the mutualistic relationship(s) between alpheids and gobiids during the early Paleogene (early Eocene) within India.

The Earth’s climate has many rhythms and pulses and behaves differently on longer and shorter scales depending on the changing boundary conditions. Contrasting climatic shifts on short time scales often characterise the long-term mean state of the Climate. The Tropical Pacific Mean State climate has been alternatively dominated by El Niño-like and La Niña-like conditions. Long-term El Niño-like conditions have been termed permanent El Niño, El Niño State, or El Padre (EP), spanning several thousand years. The Western Pacific Warm Pool (WPWP) responds to EP conditions by changing upper ocean hydrography. We used depth-stratified planktic foraminiferal relative abundance to characterise the changing hydrography of the WPWP over the last 6 million years and its impact on the variability of the strength of the Leeuwin Current (LC) in the Eastern Indian Ocean, which the WPWP influences via the Indonesian throughflow (ITF). Six EP events centred around 6.2-6.0 Ma, 3.6 Ma, 2.8 Ma, 2.3-2.3 Ma, 1.8 Ma and 0.4 Ma have been detected. These EP events are bridged by La Niña State-1 (6.0-4.2 Ma), La Niña State-2 (3.0 Ma), La Niña State-3 (2.6-2.0 Ma) and La Niña State-4 (1.4-1.0 Ma) events. The effect of the EP event in the Eastern Indian Ocean has been transmitted through the ITF, affecting the strength of the LC. The most influential EP events affecting the Eastern Indian Ocean have been EP-3, EP-4, EP-5 and EP-6. In general, the Eastern Indian Ocean responds to the EP events with a general reduction in the strength of the LC.

The Late Quaternary variability of the Indian monsoonal winds, both the southwest monsoon (SWM) and the northeast monsoon (NEM), has affected the hydrography of the Andaman Sea region through precipitation and river discharge. The Indian monsoon strength variability has been frequently linked to factors like Northern Hemisphere cooling, sunspot cycle, and glacial-interglacial intervals, besides various other forcing factors, including the shifting position of the Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ), El Niño Southern Oscillation, and Indian Ocean Dipole. The palaeomonsoon proxies have been mainly directed to understand the Wind Strength variability resulting in upwelling in the Arabian Sea or precipitation records from land-based sections. The article addresses an intriguing question about the relationship between Wind Strength Record and the resulting river discharge and precipitation record in the Andaman Sea region. The distinctive feature of the Andaman Sea water masses is the seasonal variations in the inventory of river water discharge, which affects the surface ocean salinity besides local precipitation in the region. Here, we used water mass-sensitive, and depth-stratified planktic foraminiferal assemblages from deep-sea sediment core SK 234-60 in the Andaman Sea region to reconstruct the variability of the Indian monsoonal precipitation during the late Quaternary. The wide distribution of planktic foraminiferal assemblages and their oxygen isotope analysis in deep-sea sediment cores helps to understand the precipitation and water mass conditions, as the temperature, salinity, nutrients, and trophic conditions are primarily affected by river discharge into the Andaman Sea, besides local precipitation. A detailed faunal census counts data for water mass-sensitive planktic foraminifera from the core SK 234-60 raised from the Andaman Sea has been interpreted. The depth-stratified assemblages include mixed layer dwelling (MLD) species, thermocline dweller species (TDS), and upwelling indicator species (UIS), which reflect productivity. During the late Quaternary, we observed six intervals of strengthening of the SWM mode designated here as Southwest Monsoon Mode Increase (SWMMI-1-6), suggested by the higher relative abundance of MLD and very low abundance of Thermocline Dwellers. We have also noticed six intervals of decreased Southwest Monsoon Mode, which is designated here as Southwest Monsoon Mode Decrease (SWMMD-1-6) during the last 25 KyBP. An increase in Northeast Monsoon Mode is abbreviated here as NEMMI, and a decrease in Northeast Monsoon Mode is abbreviated as NEMMD. An interesting finding is the sudden increase in the population of MLD planktic foraminifera just after all four volcanic ash layers from Barren Island during the last 25 KyBP, which might have affected the local rainfall in the Andaman Sea region.

Precipitation in the Himalayas is vital in sustaining the region’s ecological and economic systems. Rainfall in river valleys supports agriculture, which is crucial for the livelihoods of both upstream and downstream populations. Snowfall at high altitudes contributes to glacier mass balance, ensuring the long-term availability of freshwater. It also affects water resources essential for drinking, irrigation, and hydroelectric projects in the mountainous and foothill regions. In the present study, using Himalayan cedar tree-ring samples 403 years long, extending back to ad 1615, a ring-width chronology was developed from the moisture-stressed site of Chamba, Himachal Pradesh, western Himalaya. Response function analysis showed a positive relationship with precipitation and a negative relationship with temperature. However, precipitation shows a significant relationship with tree growth in the previous year’s November, December and February to May months of the current year. Utilising this relationship between tree growth and precipitation, the tree-ring width data were compared with crop productivity and river discharge from the Chamba region and with the Chhota Shigri Glacier mass balance data to assess the potential of tree-ring chronology. The tree-ring chronology shows a significant positive correlation with Rabi crop production, particularly wheat (r = 0.50) and barley (r = 0.62) for the period 1970–2014 from the Chamba Himalayan region. Furthermore, it exhibits a relationship with Budhil River discharge (r = 0.33) for the period 1973–2001 in Chamba and with the mass balance of the Chhota Shigri Glacier (0.57) for the period 1970–2013 from the Lahaul-Spiti region. This correlation highlights the potential of tree-ring chronology for analysing long-term agro-climatic conditions and river and glacial dynamics from the region.

Deciphering past vegetation composition can be upgraded by examining modern pollen rain and extant vegetation. Here, we compare pollen dataset of 15 surface soil samples from the forested area and open-land and crop-land areas of the Kukrail Reserve Forest, to understand the association between the modern pollen dispersal and the vegetation cover in the Central Ganga Plain. The palynoassemblage recovered from the surface soil displays the tropical moist and dry deciduous woodland comprising Syzygium, Butea, Holoptelea, Terminalia, Emblica, Sapotaceae and Meliaceae indicating warm and humid climate in response to rainfall heterogeneity in the study site. Extensive pollen morphological studies have also been conducted on 15 selected plant taxa for generating the modern pollen flora from this region, which could aid in the accurate identification of fossil pollen. It has been observed that a significant correlation can be seen between the local herbaceous vegetation and pollen data. The excessive incidence of anthropogenic marker pollen (cereal, average value: 17.26%) alongside with cultural pollen taxa like Brassica, Coriandrum and Solanaceae demarcate agricultural impact around the region. The multivariate statistical analysis like box-plot and principal component analysis signifies a sizable dissimilitude and similarity in pollen spectra from different depositional sites. Careful interpretation of past vegetation extent using fossil pollen assemblages is required, especially when the vegetation is treeless (open-land and crop-land areas) due to the fact that a large potential of pollen-source region and subsequently a higher percentage of long-distance anemophilous pollen have been recorded. Therefore, this study has been initiated to analyse recent pollen dispersal and preservation in various depositional settings of tropical reserve forest. Moreover, the account on cultural and anthropogenic pollen indicator could provide valuable insights into the extent of agricultural practices and the degradation of pristine forests and surrounding areas. Thus, the present pollen data would aid in accurately understanding the palaeoecological changes in the tropical forests and surrounding regions of Central Ganga Plain.

The present study investigates seasonal variations in pollen and nectar sources harnessed by honey bees across densely vegetated areas of the Gangetic plains of Uttar Pradesh. The study explores how pollen content in honey reflects the floral diversity, availability of resources, and forage preferences of honey bees. A melissopalynological study in four seasons (spring, summer, rainy, and winter) from ten densely vegetated areas of the Gangetic plain (sub-humid tropics) shows diversity of nineteen pollen types. Pollen of Azadirachta indica A. Juss., Bombax ceiba L., Caesalpinia pulcherima Sw., Syzygium cumini L., and Anacardiaceae were found to be dominant arboreal pollen content in honey samples. The Pollen of Asteroideae, Cichorioideae, Solanaceae, Malvaceae, and Ziziphus sp. Lam., Brassica campestris L., and Coriandrum sativum L. were considerably involved in honey samples. Acacia catechu L., Albizia lebbeck Benth., Cassia fistula L., Eucalyptus citriodora Hook., Lagerstroemia lanceolata Wall., Oleaceae, and Poaceae were also found to be pollen sources in honey. Despite diverse flora in densely vegetated areas, the collected honey samples show less diversity in their pollen content, showing honey bees rarely visit non-preferred species, if their preferred plant species are easily accessible and available during different seasons.

This study presents the archaeological and archaeobotanical findings based on data recorded during excavations at Khapura, a multicultural site in the Ambedkar Nagar district of Uttar Pradesh, India. The ceramic assemblage and other cultural materials, including structural remains, have revealed four distinct cultural periods, namely pre-Northern Black Polished Ware (NBPW), NBPW, Sunga-Kushana, and Gupta, dating back to 1100–200 bce. The carbonised plant remains recovered from the pre-NBPW and NBPW periods suggest a double-cropping pattern, represented by both winter and summer season crops. The identified field crops are represented by grains and seeds such as Hordeum vulgare (barley), Triticum aestivum (wheat), Oryza sativa (rice), Setaria italica (foxtail millet), Vigna sp. (green/black gram), Macrotyloma uniflorum (horse gram), Luffa sp. (sponge gourd), Linum usitatissimum (linseed). Few weeds and wild taxa, like Ziziphus sp. (jujube), Vicia sp. (common vetch), Chenopodium sp. (goosefoot), Polygonum sp. (smart weed/knot weed), were also identified in the recovered plant assemblage. These plant remains have been discussed and compared with the archaeobotanical data from other neighbouring sites in the region.

My career as a professional palaeontologist has involved work on the palaeontology, stratigraphy and environments of the Indian subcontinent, primarily in rocks of Cambrian age. The work has included revision of systematic studies conducted by earlier scientists, coupled with our own fieldwork and fresh discoveries of fossil material. It has helped place the subcontinent’s Cambrian history in a global context and impacted the interpretation of the tectonic history of the Himalayan orogen. Opportunity for palaeontological educational outreach to rural and urban dwelling children has been associated with the book মনীযার পাথরের বন (Monisha and the Stone Forest) that was published in 2012. This experience informed a current project, a 15-minute-long animated movie for children in Bengali called আমাদের পাহাড়চূড়ায় সমুদ্র (The Ocean on the Top of Our Mountain). This film will be made free-to-access on the Internet so that children with limited reading ability may become familiar with the subcontinent’s tectonic migration northwards, the formation of the Himalaya and the diversity of ancient life associated with this epic journey. The launch of this film is planned for 2026.