Journal of Learning Disabilities

The overall objective of this article is to examine how oral language abilities relate to reading profiles in English language learners (ELLs) and English as a first language (EL1) learners, and the extent of similarities and differences between ELLs and EL1s in three reading subgroups: normal readers, poor decoders, and poor comprehenders. The study included 100 ELLs and 50 EL1s in Grade 5. The effect of language group (ELL/EL1) and reading group on cognitive and linguistic skills was examined. Except for vocabulary, there was no language group effect on any measure. However, within ELL and EL1 alike, significant differences were found between reading groups: Normal readers outperformed the two other groups on all the oral language measures. Distinct cognitive and linguistic profiles were associated with poor decoders and poor comprehenders, regardless of language group. The ELL and EL1 poor decoders outperformed the poor comprehenders on listening comprehension and inferencing. The poor decoders displayed phonological-based weaknesses, whereas the poor comprehenders displayed a more generalized language processing weakness that is nonphonological in nature. Regardless of language status, students with poor decoding or comprehension problems display difficulties with various aspects of language.

Children with academic and behavioral difficulties have been found to report overly positive self-perceptions of performance in their areas of specific deficit. Researchers typically investigate self-perceptions in reference to both actual performance and ratings by teachers, peers, and parents. However, few studies have investigated whether or not adolescents with difficulty report overly positive self-perceptions. The present study sought to investigate self-perceptions of performance in the domains of spelling and math among a sample of adolescents with and without learning disabilities (LD). A total of 58 adolescents with and without LD participated. Adolescents with LD significantly overestimated their performance in math relative to their actual performance, but not in spelling, reflecting the predominant difficulty of the sample in the area of math rather than spelling. In addition, the magnitude of the gap between math predictions and actual performance was significantly greater for the group with LD than the group without LD. Findings support the existence of positive illusions in specific areas of deficit.

A review of research that uses behavioral, electroencephalographic, and/or magnetoencephalographic methods to investigate auditory processing deficits in individuals with dyslexia is presented. Findings show that measures of frequency, rise time, and duration discrimination as well as amplitude modulation and frequency modulation detection were most often impaired in individuals with dyslexia. Less consistent findings were found for intensity and gap perception. Additional factors that mediate auditory processing deficits in individuals with dyslexia and their implications are discussed.

The present study evaluated the stability of math learning difficulties over a 2-year period and investigated several factors that might influence this stability (categorical vs. continuous change, liberal vs. conservative cut point, broad vs. specific math assessment); the prediction of math performance over time and by performance level was also evaluated. Participants were 144 students initially identified as having a math difficulty (MD) or no learning difficulty according to low achievement criteria in the spring of Grade 3 or Grade 4. Students were reassessed 2 years later. For both measure types, a similar proportion of students changed whether assessed categorically or continuously. However, categorical change was heavily dependent on distance from the cut point and so more common for MD, who started closer to the cut point; reliable change index change was more similar across groups. There were few differences with regard to severity level of MD on continuous metrics or in terms of prediction. Final math performance on a broad computation measure was predicted by behavioral inattention and working memory while considering initial performance; for a specific fluency measure, working memory was not uniquely related, and behavioral inattention more variably related to final performance, again while considering initial performance.

This study investigated the association among friendship, global self-worth, and domain-specific self-concepts in 102 university students with and without learning disabilities (LD). Students with LD reported lower global self-worth and academic self-concept than students without LD, and this difference was greater for women. Students with LD also reported that they had more stable friendships than students without LD. Students with LD were more likely to have higher global self-worth and self-perceptions of social acceptance if they had stable friendships and had relationships where they communicated spontaneously and frankly. None of the friendship variables predicted academic self-concept. Thus, having stable and intimate friendships is a protective factor in relation to global self-worth and social self-concept in university students with LD.

There are relatively few studies on learning and delayed memory with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). The objective of the present study was to examine acquisition, free delayed memory, and recognition skills in medication naive children and adolescents aged 8–16 years with ADHD combined subtype (36 participants) and inattentive subtype (45) compared to 50 healthy controls (HC) aged 8–17 years. Learning and delayed memory were assessed with the Hopkins Verbal Learning Test–Revised and the Brief Visuospatial Memory Test–Revised, which have compatible methods of administration, test format, and score ranges. The results showed that children with both ADHD subtypes scored significantly below HC in acquisition, free delayed memory, and recognition, even when controlling for the effect of IQ. Comparing phases in the learning process showed an initial deficit in acquisition but no increase in effect size in subsequent testing of free delayed memory or recognition. The study indicates that learning and delayed memory processes are impaired in both combined and inattentive subtypes of ADHD and that the deficits are not merely an artifact of IQ. The study indicates that emphasis must be put on the acquisition phase and how students with ADHD organize and encode new information.

Elementary school children with reading disabilities (RD; n = 17), mathematical disabilities (MD; n = 22), or combined reading and mathematical disabilities (RD+MD; n = 28) were compared to average achieving (AA; n = 45) peers on working memory measures. On all working memory components, 2 (RD vs. no RD) × 2 (MD vs. no MD) factorial ANCOVAs revealed clear differences between children with and without RD. Children with MD had lower span scores than the AA children on measures of the phonological loop and the central executive. A significant interaction effect between RD and MD was found only for listening recall and had a small, partial effect size. In addition, analyses showed that the best logistic regression model consisted of a visuospatial and a central executive task. The model significantly distinguished between the AA and clinical groups and between the MD and RD+MD groups. Evidence was found for domain-general working memory problems in children with learning disabilities. Management of working memory loads in structured learning activities in the classroom, at home, or during therapy may help these children to cope with their problems in a more profound manner.

Based on the latest U.S. Department of Education data, this article presents the enrollment figures for students identified with specific learning disabilities (SLD) under the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) for the school years from 1995–1996 to 2011–2012. The figures for each year are (a) the number of students with SLD ages 6 to 21, (b) the percentage in relation to students classified under all of the IDEA classifications, and (c) the percentage in relation to total K–12 school enrollments. The discussion examines these trends and explores the possible reasons for them.

Klassen, R. M., Tze, V. M. C., & Hannok, W. (2013). Internalizing problems of adults with learning disabilities: A meta-analysis. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 46(4), 317–327. (Original doi:10.1177/0022219411422260)