Perceptual and Motor Skills

Visual perceptual skills of school-age children are often assessed using the Supplemental Developmental Test of Visual Perception of the Developmental Test of Visual-Motor Integration. The study purpose was to consider the construct validity of this test by evaluating its scalability (interval level measurement), unidimensionality, differential item functioning, and hierarchical ordering of its items. Visual perceptual performance scores from a sample of 356 typically developing children (171 boys and 185 girls ages 5 to 11 years) were used to complete a Rasch analysis of the test. Seven items were discarded for poor fit, while none of the items exhibited differential item functioning by sex. The construct validity, scalability, hierarchical ordering, and lack of differential item functioning requirements were met by the final test version. Since 7 test items did not fit the Rasch analysis specifications, the clinical value of the test is questionable and limited.

A computer-assisted language intervention, Fast For Word-Language (FFW–L), was tested at a rural Nevada center in a group of children (Grades 2–12) referred by parents and teachers to assess enhancement of language skills. Given conflicting results from previous studies, language scores were measured using Clinical Evaluation of Language Fundamentals, Third Edition (CELF–3) before and after the FFW–L intervention. 58 children's CELF–3 postintervention scores were adjusted for age-specific expected changes and compared with pretest scores. Adjusted scores increased in both receptive and expressive domains of the CELF–3. Children with prior diagnoses of language and/or learning impairment did not differ from other referrals on adjusted CELF–3 adjusted gain scores after treatment. Thus the Fast ForWord–Language intervention may benefit a much broader group of children referred by parents and teachers for language or reading problems.

The present study investigated the correlations among snoring, breathing pauses during sleep, and nightmare frequency in a sample of 444 healthy individuals. Breathing pauses, but not snoring, were associated with heightened nightmare frequency. Whereas the hypothesis that shortage of oxygen directly causes nightmares is not supported by the literature, novel internal stimuli might affect dream content.

Optimism is important in enhancing human psychological and physical well-being; however, the association of optimism with burnout has received little attention in sport psychology. This study recruited 139 young volleyball players (M = 16.3 yr., SD = 0.8) to examine this relation. Athletes completed the Chinese version of the Life Orientation Test at Time 1 and 4 mo. later (Time 2). The Chinese version of the Athlete Burnout Questionnaire was also administered. Analysis showed scores on optimism were negatively related to athletes' burnout scores.

The present study investigated the effects of sociodemographic variables on dream recall frequencies in a representative sample of 931 persons over 14 years of age. Analyses indicated that age, sex, and the size of the place of residence had small but significant effects: women and inhabitants of large cities tend to report dreams more often than men and residents of small towns. There was also a decline in dream-recall frequency with age. The explained variance, however, was small.

A 2003 study by Green and Bavelier showed that action video-game playing modified the visual selective attention of habitual players so the present hypothesis was whether processing of Chinese characters became more phonologically or orthographically oriented depending on whether participants were experienced typing with the phonological (zhuyin) or the orthographic (changjie) word-entry method. In Exp. 1, 38 changjie and 40 zhuyin users typed a short text on a computer using the word-entry method they had experienced. Every keystroke was recorded, and typing errors were categorized. In Exp. 2, 25 changjie and 25 zhuyin users had to circle all characters which contained a predesignated radical when they read a short passage. In Exp. 3, 25 changjie and 20 zhuyin users heard pairs of syllables and had to decide whether the two syllables in a pair shared the same onset consonant in one block of trials or the same rhyme in another block of trials. Analysis showed participants with extensive experience using phonological typing displayed more phonologically related typing errors, better sensitivity to the onset and rhyme of a syllable, but poorer sensitivity to the radical of a character. Participants with extensive experience using orthographic typing displayed opposite results. Although the general cognitive system might be similar in the two groups of participants, the specific configuration of the system can vary to meet the demand of a particular design of the artifactual environment.

Fixation-identification algorithms, needed for analyses of eye movements, may typically be separated into three categories, viz. (i) velocity-based algorithms, (ii) area-based algorithms, and (iii) dispersion-based algorithms. Dispersion-based algorithms are commonly used but this application introduces some difficulties, one being optimization. Basically, there are two modes to reach this goal of optimization, viz., the start-point mode and the centroid mode. The aim of the present study was to compare and evaluate these two dispersion-based algorithms. Manual inspections were made of 1,400 fixations in each mode. Odds ratios showed that by using the centroid mode for fixation detection, a valid fixation is 2.86 times more likely to be identified than by using the start-point mode. Moreover, the algorithm based on centroid mode dispersion showed a good interpretation speed, accuracy, robustness, and ease of implementation, as well as adequate parameter settings.

Executive dysfunction is a frequent sequela of traumatic brain injury. Two correlational studies using samples of inpatients and outpatients diagnosed with traumatic brain injury were undertaken to evaluate the validity of a bedside screening test of executive functioning, the 1992 Executive Interview EXIT 25 by Royall, Mahurin, and Gray. In the first study of 23 inpatients receiving rehabilitation, the EXIT 25 was strongly related to both the Mini-Mental State Examination and the Modified Mini-Mental State Examination. In the second study of 20 outpatients, the EXIT 25 correlated with other executive function measures and with ratings of functional disability at discharge, although a ceiling effect raised questions about its utility for patients with mild to moderate disability. Further study of the EXIT 25 is justified with a larger sample of inpatients, although caution should be exercised when using the EXIT 25 in mildly impaired outpatients.

An experimental study was undertaken to assess the phenomenon of male preference for blondes. In the first study, 360 Polish men ages 18 to 46 years were asked to assess the attractiveness of the presented stimuli using a 9-point scale. Stimuli were 9 different pictures of the same women whose ages (about 20, 30, and 40 years old) and hair colors (blonde, brown, and brunette) were manipulated. Pictures of blonde-haired women were generally rated as younger than the others. The attractiveness ratings of female faces changed with age and hair color. Still, only the 30-yr.-old woman with blonde hair was rated as significantly more attractive than those with brown or brunette hair. In a second study (the analysis of 500 internet advertisements) mature women dyed their hair blonde more frequently. These results are analyzed with regard to the evolutionarily formed male preference for younger females.

This exploratory study examined the effects of a 9-wk. after-school multiskills club on fundamental movement skill proficiency in 8- to 9-yr.-old children. Two schools were randomly assigned to either a control (n = 15 children) or multiskill club (n = 19 children) condition. The multiskill club received 18 coaching sessions designed to improve fundamental movement skills. The control group followed normal routines. 7 skills were assessed using process-oriented measures with video analysis. Participation in the multiskill club yielded significant improvements in proficiency at posttest only in static balance, while potentially practically important improvements were observed in performance of the catch, throw, and kick skills. The after-school multiskill club offered a viable opportunity for movement skill acquisition, but any such programme would need to run for a longer duration to assess whether this type of activity could benefit all skills.

In a 2006 study the influence of spacing between vertical lines, exposure time, and number of vertical lines on visual performance was identified. The present study further explored the effects of luminance ratio on discrimination of separation. Analysis showed the luminance ratio of target vertical lines affected the visual performance of both younger and elderly people. The luminance ratio was greater, as was accuracy; however, accuracy might not become greater when the luminance ratio was too high. Further, the effect of the number of vertical lines on accuracy was significant, as was consistent with the 2006 study. Two interactive two-way effects were found, group × luminance ratio and luminance ratio × number of vertical lines.

A 2007 study indicated severity of violence of several behaviors can be rated consistently, such that an individual's average rating across the behaviors can serve as a measure of sensitivity to violence. However, violence-sensitive and violence-tolerant raters in that study gave similar high scale ratings of severity of violence for extremely violent behaviors such as murder and stabbing. In the present study an open-ended magnitude estimation response scale was used by 27 participants to examine impressions of the severity of violence of 38 behaviors. There was a positive correlation between estimates of severity for extreme physical violence and estimates for lower severity of violence. This result indicates that the earlier finding of apparent equivalence of sensitive and tolerant individuals did not signify agreement about extremely violent behaviors but was a ceiling effect arising from the closed-ended response scale used. Violence-sensitive and violence-tolerant individuals seem to have different attitudes toward all types of violence.

The interference effect between Grooved Pegboard task with either hand and the executive task of cued verbal random number generation was investigated, 24 normal right-handed subjects performed each task under separate (single-task) and concurrent (dual-task) conditions. Articulatory suppression was required as an additional secondary task during pegboard performance. Analysis indicated an unambiguous distinction between the two hands. Comparisons of single-task and dual-task conditions showed an asymmetrical pattern of unidirectional interference with no practice effects during pegboard performance. Concurrent performance with nondominant hand but not the dominant hand of random number generation performance became continuously slower. There was no effect of divided attention on pegboard performance. Findings support the idea that the nondominant hand on the pegboard and random number tasks draw from the same processing resources but that for the executive aspect random number generation is more sensitive to changes in allocation of attentional resources.

This study examined the effects of climbing ladders, wall bars, perches, and ropes in changing students' attitudes and emotions associated with sport climbing. The tasks were part of a physical education instructional curriculum of primary schools in Italy. Boys and girls (N = 80), ages 10 to 11 years, were involved in a 10-lesson intervention during their curricular lesson. Participants were from six normal classes ranging in size from 16 to 18 children. Three classes were assigned randomly to an experimental group and the other three to a control group. The experimental group performed challenging climbing tasks, while the control group engaged in other physical activities. Analysis of variance indicated that scores on the Climbing Pictures Test differed significantly after the intervention, with children in the experimental group scoring lower on avoidance of climbing situations and higher on positive emotions.

This study examined age-group and individual differences on the controlled force-exertion test by bar-chart display and proposed a provisional norm in 249 females who were right-handed and ages 15 to 84 years. The subjects matched their submaximal grip strength to changing demand values, appearing as a bar chart on the display of a personal computer. The subjects performed the controlled force-exertion test three times with 1-min. intervals (single trials were 40 sec), after one practice trial using the dominant hand. A total of the differences (%) between the demand value and the grip-exertion value for 25 sec. was used as an evaluation parameter. The measurements showed a right-skewed distribution, normalized after logarithmic transformation. Analysis of variance identified significant differences between means of each age group; test performance decreased after 40 years of age. Norms for each age group were presented.

Methodological biases may help explain the modality effect, which is superior recall of auditory recency (end of list) items relative to visual recency items. In 1985 Nairne and McNabb used a counting procedure to reduce methodological biases, and they produced modality-like effects, such that recall of tactile recency items was superior to recall of visual recency items. The present study extended Nairne and McNabb's counting procedure and controlled several variables which may have enhanced recall of tactile end items or disrupted recall of visual end items in their study. Although the results of the present study indicated general serial position effects across tactile, visual, and auditory presentation modalities, the tactile condition showed lower recall for the initial items in the presentation list than the other two conditions. Moreover, recall of the final list item did not differ across the three presentation modalities; modality effects were not found. These results did not replicate the findings of Nairne and McNabb, or much of the past research showing superior recall of auditory recency items. Implications of these findings are discussed.

The purpose was to examine the different aspects of perfectionism and athletes' burnout. College athletes (N = 320) with mean age of 19.7 yr. (SD = 1.4) completed the Chinese version of the Multiple Perfectionism Scale for Sport and the Eades' Athlete Burnout Inventory. Results indicated that perfectionism could be separated into adaptive and maladaptive perfectionism. Adaptive perfectionism was linked to reduced athletes' burnout while maladaptive perfectionism was associated with athletes' burnout. In addition, significant interaction was found between adaptive perfectionism and maladaptive perfectionism on athletes' burnout. Results suggest that high maladaptive perfectionism and low adaptive perfectionism corresponds to higher scores on athletes' burnout. Perfectionism should not be treated as an all-or-nothing disposition. The extent of athlete burnout can vary with the interaction effects of the two types of perfectionism. In terms of practical implications in intervention work, coaches and sport psychologists should try to reduce athletes' maladaptive perfectionism and increase adaptive perfectionism.

This investigation assessed awareness of the oral cavity of nonnative speakers acquiring English. University students (60 men, 60 women) were placed into three equal-size groups. The Less Experienced group lived in the USA less than 6 mo. (M = 3.3 mo., SD = 2.4). The More Experienced group lived in the United States 3 or more years (M = 5.0 yr., SD = 1.9). Native English speakers were the control group. Participants were recruited from undergraduate general education classes and passed a speech screening in English including accurate production of the seven English syllables tested, namely, suh, luh, tuh, kuh, ruh, shuh, and thuh. Participants answered four multiple-choice questions about lingual contact for each of the syllables imitated. Total test mean scores were significantly higher for the More Experienced group. Native speakers performed the task best. Findings support the effects of amount of time speaking the language. Training methods employed to teach English and slight dialectal variations may account for the significant differences seen in the two groups of nonnative speakers. Further study is warranted.

The utility of the habituation–dishabituation procedure was examined in the common marmosets (Callithrix jacchus) and the owl monkeys (Aotus spp.). The same movies were repeatedly shown to monkeys during an habituation phase, followed by a test phase during which monkeys were presented with a different movie. The time monkeys spent looking at the movie gradually decreased during the habituation phase and then significantly increased when they were presented the new movie. The limited findings indicate that these monkeys were sensitive to the habituation–dishabituation paradigm, suggesting that this procedure might be used to assess cognition and perception.

This cross-sectional study was undertaken with 489 secondary school girls, ages 15–17 years, to examine disordered eating behaviours of adolescent girls in Malaysia and to estimate associations with body weight, body-size discrepancy, and self-esteem. Dietary restraint, binge eating, body image, and self-esteem were assessed using the Restrained Eating scale of the Dutch Eating Behaviour Questionnaire, the Binge Scale Questionnaire, the Contour Drawing Rating Scale, and the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale, respectively. Pearson correlations estimated associations between variables. There were 3.1% underweight, 9.8% at risk of being overweight, and 8.6% overweight girls. A total of 87.3% were dissatisfied with their own body size. Dietary restraint and binge eating were reported by 36.0% and 35.4%, respectively. Body Mass Index (r = .34, p < .01) and body-size dissatisfaction (r = .24, p < .01) were significantly associated with dietary restraint and binge eating, but self-esteem (r = −.20, p < .001) was significantly associated only with binge eating.

A peripheral uniform stimulus on a uniform background tends to fade when a ring enclosing the stimulus is flashed briefly, indicating that neural signals external to the stimulus such as those from the ring or those from the background tend to inhibit the onset-response or after-discharge of the stimulus. In this study, a peripheral achromatic line was flashed briefly on an achromatic background while the subject was steadily fixating on a point on the background. It was predicted that the stimulus line would fade due to background inhibition of the onset-response or after-discharge of the stimulus. On a reference line, subjects indicated two points delimiting the part of the stimulus line which looked uniform in intensity of color. These points converged toward the center of the reference line as the luminance of the stimulus line approached that of the background. Compared to the central uniform part, the nonuniform parts near the endpoints of the stimulus line looked more faded. These results support the idea that the background surrounding a stimulus tends to inhibit the onset-response of after-discharge of the stimulus.

The purpose of the study was to examine the effect of person-centered intervention on motivation for athletic performance. 74 volleyball players, 24 boys and 50 girls (M age = 13 yr., SD= 1.0), completed a motivation questionnaire, the Leistungs Motivations Test für Jugendlichen prior to and after an 8-mo. group treatment that included the application of Roger's person-centered method to the participants of the experimental group (1 boys' team n = 12; 1 girls' team n = 11), at a frequency of at least one session per week. In the control group (1 boys' team n = 12; 3 girls' teams n = 39), no particular method was used apart from the pedagogical methods that coaches selected. Results revealed a statistically significant decrease in boys' scores on desire for performance and success between the pre- and posttest measurements. No significant change in girls' scores was observed. Thus, the 8-mo. treatment using the person-centered method did not improve volleyball players' motivation for performance.

Technical actions performed by two groups of judokas who won medals at World Championships and Olympic Games during the period 1995–2001 were analyzed. In the Super Elite group (n = 17) were the best athletes in each weight category. The Elite group (n = 16) were medal winners who were not champions and did not win more than three medals. Super Elite judokas used a greater number of throwing techniques which resulted in scores, even when expressed relative to the total number of matches performed, and these techniques were applied in more directions than those of Elite judokas. Further, the number of different throwing techniques and the variability of directions in which techniques were applied were significantly correlated with number of wins and the number of points and ippon scored. Thus, a greater number of throwing techniques and use of directions for attack seem to be important in increasing unpredictability during judo matches.

This study was designed to characterize oral perception of both weight and volume of boluses. A total of 80 healthy young female subjects was recruited and divided into bolus weight (n = 40) and bolus volume (n = 40) conditions. Tap water (25°C) was the experimental material, and seven reference stimulus amounts ranging from 10 to 40 (grams and mL) were prepared. The reference stimuli, including a modulus of 20 (grams and mL), were delivered to the subjects in randomized order. The estimated magnitudes (Ψ) conformed to both the Fechner's and Stevens' psychophysical laws by the following equations: (1) Ψ_W = 314.3 log (S+1) −300.2 where S is stimulus intensity or weight, and Ψ_V = 249.7 log (S+1) −222.3 (volume) on logarithmic (log)-linear scales, and (2) Ψ_W = 1.908 S^1.297 and Ψ_V = 4.097 S^1.032 on log-log scales, respectively. The results indicate that oral perception of bolus weight and bolus volume conforms to the representative psychophysical laws.

This study suggested Lawton and Kallai's 2002 International Wayfinding Strategy Scale was appropriate for use in the UK. Participants at a northeastern English university (N = 148) completed the scale. Principal components analysis (oblimin rotation) with 2 factors specified supported the expected structure and indicated the scale could be used to measure wayfinding strategies across cultures; however, 1 of the 17 original items on the scale was not suitable for use with a UK sample and 1 item loaded on the opposite factor as expected. The resulting orientation strategy score was used more by men, but the mean route strategy scale scores did not differ by sex.

Digit ratio (2D:4D), a putative marker for prenatal androgen levels, and absolute finger length, a marker for pubertal androgen action, were not associated with wearing of wedding rings in a sample of 150 male and 199 female married individuals. This failure to replicate associations previously reported by Manning was true for both men and women, self-reported and spousal ring-wearing behavior, and one's own and spousal 2D:4D or absolute finger lengths. Supplemental findings included sex differences and age effects in the prevalence of wearing wedding rings (more frequent in women and the younger than in men and the older) and a sex bias when ring-wearing behavior within couples was discordant (men more frequently did not wear their wedding ring when their wives did than vice versa). Discussed are implications of the current findings and directions for future research into possible associations of 2D:4D with other aspects of body ornamentation.

In 2007 Brašić questioned the methodology used by Pedersen and Surburg to test the effect of stimulant medication on lower extremity motor processing of children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). The purpose of this response is to clarify the research design used in that 2005 study.

The constant-RPE tracking model monitors progress over the course of exercise training. During aerobic exercise, prior work using this model has demonstrated similar relative intensities pre- and posttraining, while the absolute workload increases posttraining. However, the prediction equation associated with these changes has not been examined during resistance training. 22 men and 27 women (M age 64 yr.) participated in a 12-wk. resistance training. Orientation determined resistances associated with RPEs of 4, 5–6, 7–8, and 9 on the OMNI-Resistance Exercise Scale for each of seven exercises for each participant. Individuals trained 3 days a week for 12 wk. Linear regression was used to calculate percent of 1-repetition maximum (%1-RM) at RPE 4, 6, and 8 for the exercises. Paired sample t tests, comparing pre- and posttraining %1-RMs at each RPE, indicated that posttraining %1-RMs were higher for RPE 4 and 6 for each exercise, while at RPE 8, results were significant for only 3 exercises. Thus for at least the RPE 4 and 6, the constant RPE tracking model is appropriate for resistance exercise; however, the equation of prediction appears to differ from that for aerobic exercise. Development of a new prediction equation may be necessary to track relative strength in older adults.

This study assessed whether the Recovery-Stress Questionnaire for Athletes (RESTQ-Sport) could be used to monitor changes in perceived stress and recovery during intensified training of rugby league players. 20 semiprofessional rugby league players were divided into two equal groups randomly assigned to complete 6 wk. of Normal Training or Intensified Training, each followed with a 7-day taper. Multistage Fitness Test performance and RESTQ–Sport measures were taken at the beginning, at 2-wk. intervals, and at the end of the training period. Endurance significantly decreased with Intensified Training and returned to baseline levels following the taper, while remaining unchanged in the Normal Training group. The RESTQ–Sport scores with training were positively related to stress subscale scores (Fatigue, Disturbed Breaks, and General Stress) and recovery subscale measures (Success, Physical Recovery, Being in Shape, Self-efficacy, Social Relaxation, General Well-being, and Sleep Quality) decreasing in the Intensified Training group and then normalising following the taper (Stress subscales: Fatigue and General Stress, and Recovery subscales: Physical Recovery and General Well-being). The RESTQ–Sport is a practical psychometric tool for monitoring responses to training in team-sport athletes.

Muscle activities at 15 sites were compared within a group of healthy young adults to evaluate their relative intensities during six abdominal exercises: partial and full sit-ups on a firm surface (floor) and on an exercise ball that was either stabilized or unstabilized. The most strenuous abdominal exercise overall (i.e., whole body workout) was the full sit-up on a firm surface which included significant muscle activities in the lower extremities. Exercise intensity was also high in the full and partial sit-ups when performed on a ball. The partial sit-up on the floor was the least strenuous of the six exercises. The greatest effect on the abdominal muscles was observed in the partial sit-up on a ball (stabilized and unstabilized). Results suggest that, although abdominal exercises on a ball may be gentler on the hip and lower back, overall exercise intensity is not necessarily lower than that on the floor. Moreover, partial sit-ups, both on the floor and on a ball, also required greater neck muscle activities than full sit-ups. In deciding what type of sit-up to do, exercise surface and different muscular activities between the partial and full sit-ups should be considered.

Previous research has suggested that the use of song can facilitate recall of text. This study examined the effect of repetition of a melody across verses, familiarity with the melody, rhythm, and other structural processing hypotheses to explain this phenomenon. Two experiments were conducted, each with 100 participants recruited from undergraduate Psychology programs (44 men, 156 women, M age = 28.5 yr., SD = 9.4). In Exp. 1, participants learned a four-verse ballad in one of five encoding conditions (familiar melody, unfamiliar melody, unknown rhythm, known rhythm, and spoken). Exp. 2 assessed the effect of familiarity in rhythm-only conditions and of pre-exposure with a previously unfamiliar melody. Measures taken were number of verbatim words recalled and number of lines produced with correct syllabic structure. Analysis indicated that rhythm, with or without musical accompaniment, can facilitate recall of text, suggesting that rhythm may provide a schematic frame to which text can be attached. Similarly, familiarity with the rhythm or melody facilitated recall. Findings are discussed in terms of integration and dual-processing theories.

The purpose of this study was to assess the effect of the color of light in a room on muscular strength and power. A convenience sample of 18 men (M age = 20.4 yr., SD = 1.2) performed a modified Wingate Anaerobic Cycle Test for muscular power and a hand grip strength test in each of the following conditions: red, blue, and white (neutral) ambient light. A repeated-measures multivariate analysis of variance indicated that average muscular power was significantly higher when performing the test in the room with red light compared to rooms lit with blue light or white light. The results also indicated that grip strength was significantly higher in the room lit with white light as compared to the room lit with blue light.

Kinesthetic sense plays an important role in writing. Children with low vision lack sensory input from the environment given their loss of vision. This study assessed the effect of upper extremity kinesthetic sense on writing function in two groups, one of students with low vision (9 girls and 11 boys, 9.4 ± 1.9 yr. of age) and one of sighted students (10 girls and 10 boys, 10.1 ± 1.3 yr. of age). All participants were given the Kinesthesia Test and Jebsen Hand Function Test-Writing subtest. Students with low vision scored lower on kinesthetic perception and writing performance than sighted peers. The correlation between scores for writing performance and upper extremity kinesthetic sense in the two groups was significant (r = −.34). The probability of deficiencies in kinesthetic information in students with low vision must be remembered.

Motor imagery and action-based rehearsal were compared during motor sequence-learning by young adults (M = 25 yr., SD = 3) and aged adults (M = 63 yr., SD = 7). General accuracy of aged adults was lower than that of young adults (F_1,28 = 7.37, p = .01) even though working-memory capacity was equivalent in the two groups. Motor imagery and rehearsal by action increased accuracy in both age groups, compared with minimization of opportunity for rehearsal (F_1,28 = 30.95, p < .001), but no interaction was found with age group, which suggests that young and aged adults were equally capable of motor imagery and action-based rehearsal. It was assumed that differences in performance between young and aged participants related to the formation of mental representations of sequences and integration of new elements into these representations rather than the capacity for motor imagery or rehearsal by action per se. The current study was exploratory and involved a relatively small sample of 15 participants per age group. Caution must be taken when considering the results.