International Journal of Sports Science & Coaching

The present study used a sample of team sport athletes (N = 343) to investigate to what extent the leadership quality of the coach and the athlete leaders was related to athletes’ team confidence and team cohesion. The findings demonstrated that the leadership quality of both coaches and athlete leaders predicted a unique part of the variance of team confidence and team cohesion. In addition, members’ identification with the team was demonstrated to be an important mechanism underlying this relation, thereby supporting the Social Identity Approach to Leadership. We conclude that both coaches and athlete leaders can inspire players to identify with their team. In turn, this feeling of ‘us’, rather than being a group of I’s, predicts a stronger confidence in obtaining team goals and fosters the task and social cohesion within the team. When coaches share the lead with their athletes, an optimal team environment can be created.

Emotional abuse has been highlighted as a key issue within the youth sport context. The present study investigated how perceptions of emotional abuse are influenced by situational factors. Two hundred and eight participants (107 athletes and 101 coaches) were shown a series of vignettes depicting emotionally abusive behaviour by a coach towards a 14-year-old athlete. Differences in perceptions were explored in relation to the level of competition (elite, county and club) and performance outcome (successful/unsuccessful) depicted in the vignette. Participants rated each vignette on a 5-point scale in terms of the extent to which the coach’s behaviour had an impact on the athlete’s performance and well-being as well as the perceived commonality and acceptability of the behaviour. Two-way ANOVAs revealed that competitive level and performance outcome, both as main effects and as an interaction, significantly influenced perceptions. These findings can inform policy and practice to change attitudes and behaviours which support and justify emotionally abusive behaviours in youth sport contexts.

The Playing for Life (P4L) philosophy was developed based on the concept of game play. It emphasizes learning through games within the sporting context to promote sports participation. The main aim of the study was to qualitatively evaluate the effectiveness of the P4L philosophy in contributing to enjoyment and in encouraging continued participation in sports. A total of 97 children (aged 5–12 years), who participated in the Active After-school Communities program that adopted the P4L philosophy by the Australian Sports Commission, took part in 56 paired or individual interviews. Transcripts were initially deductively coded based on pre-determined themes, and were inductively coded for additional themes that were indicative of the effectiveness of the afterschool sports program following the P4L philosophy. Main themes identified from the interviews were motor development and knowledge acquisition, psychological and cognitive benefits, social development, and active living awareness. The P4L philosophy appeared to be effective in engaging children in sports participation and in promoting potentially sustainable positive physical activity behavior.

The purpose of this study was to explore whether the importance athletes place on behaviors of their coach moderates the relationship between athletes’ perceptions of their coach’s feedback and their own perceptions of competence. Adult female softball players participating in a competitive league completed questionnaires assessing (a) their perceptions of competence, (b) their perceptions of feedback they typically receive from their coach, and (c) the importance they place on what their coach says and does. Overall, results of various regression analyses provided general support for the hypothesis that a stronger effect of coach feedback on athletes’ perceptions of competence would emerge for those athletes placing greater importance on their coach. This effect was primarily a function of variations in the interpretation of positive and informational feedback. Results are discussed relative to theory and research on coaching behavior and self-perceptions.

This study investigated the effectiveness of rugby-specific video-based perceptual training on the speed and agility of club-level rugby union players. Twenty-six players were randomly divided into either a video-based, field-based or conventional training group. For six weeks, the video-based and field-based groups performed agility training twice a week in addition to their regular rugby training, while the control group was restricted to regular rugby training. Speed, reactive agility and change of direction speed were tested pre- and post-intervention, and after a six-week retention period. Results revealed that both video- and field-based training were almost certainly more beneficial (13% and 17%, respectively) to improve reactive agility compared to conventional rugby training alone. In addition, both intervention groups maintained their reactive agility improvements following the retention period. Consequently, video-based training, likely because of a perceptual component, could be used as an alternative training method to improve reactive agility.

The technical demands of games can be affected by changing the number of players, pitch size and rules. This controlled trial compared the frequency of technical skills between a ‘traditional’ and newly introduced systematically ‘modified’ game of primary rugby league. A total of 475 primary rugby league players (Under 7s to 9s) were filmed playing traditional (n = 49) and modified (n = 249) formats. Notational analysis examined the frequency of technical skills (e.g. number of passes) within ‘traditional’ and ‘modified’ games. At each age category, multivariate analysis of variance indicated the clear superiority of the ‘modified’ game for the frequency of technical skills (e.g. Under 7s total skill opportunities – ‘traditional’ = 342.9 ± 47.0; ‘modified’ = 449.4 ± 93.3, d = 1.44, p < 0.001). Systematically modifying the competitive game is an effective way to increase skill opportunities for children within rugby league. Future research should examine the outcomes of modifying games in optimizing skill development in youth sport.

The study investigated the observational capabilities of experienced elite coaches whilst focusing upon soccer specific actions and playing positions within elite youth soccer. Six soccer coaches assessed the performances of 10 youth soccer players (across 8 matches) on their short/long passing, tackling, shooting, heading and dribbling. Analysis was undertaken on an overall, quality and positional grouping basis. Mean observational accuracy was 38.8%, with successful shooting (78.6%) and passing (29.9%) illustrating the range. The limited effective observation of dribbling (37.2%), often considered a separating factor within talent identification, highlights the need for objective measures to aid such processes. Positional grouping analysis elicited ∼20% more effective observation for unsuccessful compared with successful actions. The poor level of observational accuracy identified herein has significant implications on talent identification assessments devoid of post-performance analyses. The findings reinforce the importance of performance analysis in the provision of highly accurate and comprehensive augmented feedback within the coaching process.

Coordination and crew synchronization are essential for a smooth boat run in rowing. The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of acoustic feedback on boat speed, rowing technique, and crew synchronization in elite junior rowing. Thirty junior athletes (A, B–squad) participated in the field study in two measuring series in a total of eight boats. Measuring included handle forces, rowing angle, boat acceleration, and distance traveled at two training intensities (20, 22 strokes/minute). Also, blood lactate and heart rate were collected. Boat acceleration–time traces were sonified into online acoustic feedback and presented via speakers during rowing. A repeated measures within-participant factorial analysis of variance compared sections with and without acoustic feedback (α = 0.05). Significantly faster boat speed with acoustic feedback compared to baseline was found for both squad levels. The time structure of rowing cycles was improved (prolonged duration of positive acceleration). No differences were found for handle power and physiological data. Parameters of crew synchronization showed reduced ranges for the time during drive and recovery phase, rhythm quotient, and handle speed during the drive phase with acoustic feedback compared to baseline. Questioning of athletes showed the benefits of acoustic feedback as supportive for technique training in elite junior rowing.

The aim of the investigation was to determine the relationship between blood creatine kinase and physical match performance in 15 elite male soccer players competing in the English Premier League. Blood samples were collected 48 h following a competitive match and analysed for creatine kinase concentration immediately after collection. Physical match performance data were collected using a computerised tracking system (Prozone®) from >6 matches for each player. Mean ± S.D creatine kinase concentration 48 h post-match was 520 ± 224 µ.mol.l⁻¹. Large individual variation in creatine kinase response at this time point was observed (184 µ.mol.l⁻¹ to 1573 µ.mol.l⁻¹). No significant correlation coefficients were observed between the chosen indicators of physical match performance and creatine kinase concentration 48 h post-match. These data suggest that creatine kinase concentrations are elevated as a consequence of playing a soccer match. Creatine kinase may also be of limited value in supporting important decisions in the coaching process.

The current study examined the extent to which pitch dimensions can influence the physical and estimated energetic demands of hurling small-sided games. Training data (n = 990) were collected from 24 (age 25.5 ± 3.2 years; height 178.9 ± 3.2 cm; body mass 78.5 ± 4.5 kg) hurling players using 4-Hz global positioning system technology (VX Sport, Lower Hutt, New Zealand). Total distance (m), high-speed running distance (m; ≥ 17 km/h), very high-speed running distance (m; ≥ 22 km/h), total accelerations (n), acceleration distance (m), peak and mean velocity (km/h) were considered. In addition changes in velocity were analysed by assessing the acceleration actions during SSG. This allowed for the assessment of estimated energy expenditure (kJ/kg) and the equivalent distance covered a different metabolic power thresholds. The main findings show that traditional speed-based data increased as pitch dimensions were increased (p = 0.002; d = 4.53 ± 0.46; very large). Furthermore, as relative player area increased there was an increase in estimated energy expenditure (p = 0.004; d = 2. 16 ± 0.20; very large) and average metabolic power metrics (p = 0.002; d = 1.13 ± 0.46; moderate). Distances covered at metabolic power categories (TP) increased with small-sided games pitch dimension (p = 0.002; d = 0.3 ± 0.06; small). The study enables coaches to better understand the physical demands imposed on players during specific hurling small-sided games pitch dimensions, and highlights that traditional speed-based data underestimate the running demands of small-sided games.

Current research on emotions in sport focuses heavily on athletes’ intrapersonal emotion regulation; however, interpersonal consequences of emotion regulation are garnering recent attention. As leaders in sport, coaches have the opportunity to regulate not only their own emotions, but also those of athletes, officials, and spectators. As such, the present study set out to develop an observational tool, demonstrating evidence of validity and reliability, for measuring coaches’ overt emotions in the youth sport context. Categories were derived and refined through extensive literature and video review, resulting in 12 categories of behavioural content and eight emotion modifiers (Neutral, Happy, Affectionate, Alert, Tense, Anxious, Angry and Disappointed). The final coding system is presented herein, complete with supporting evidence for validity and reliability. As a tool for both researchers and practitioners in sport, the Assessment of Coach Emotions (ACE) offers enhanced insight into the contextual qualities underlying coaches’ interactive behaviours.

The purpose of the current study was to assess the validity and reliability of measures obtained by a 3-axis commercial accelerometer during weightlifting movements in comparison with kinematic data derived from the 3D videography. Kinematic data from 3D videography were obtained from 11 track & field throwers performing 3 trials each one at different loads in power snatch, power clean and jerk from the rack. The results showed that the accelerometer measures were highly correlated with derived acceleration data from 3D videography data in the vertical plane (Z axis) taking up to the pull phase (including first pull, transition and second pull) for power snatch and power clean and up to the highest point of the bar path before the catch position (including dip, drive and split phases) for jerk from the rack. On the basis of these results, this device was proven to be valid and reliable on Z axis on the weightlifting movements studied. Thus, this system may be a useful and easy to handle tool to measure acceleration during real-time training sessions.

The aim of this study was to describe the training intensity distribution of elite young tennis players, based on the session rating of perceived exertion and heart rate methods. Twelve professional tennis players participated in this study. Heart rate and session rating of perceived exertion were collected in 384 tennis training sessions, 23 simulated matches, and 17 official matches. The total training time spent in the heart rate zone-1 (52.00%) and zone-2 (37.10%) was greater than the time spent in zone-3 (10.90%) during the 5-week training period (p < 0.05). Similarly, the total training time spent in the session rating of perceived exertion zone-1 (42.00%) and zone-2 (47.50%) was also greater than the time in zone-3 (10.50%) (p < 0.05). The data of the present study suggest that the majority of the training sessions of these young tennis players were performed at low-to-moderate intensity zone and, therefore, under the intensity performed during actual tennis match play.

Coach development, coach development programmes are conducted to change coach behavior in a specific domain. To facilitate understanding of this growing field, the current synthesis review of coaching literature was conducted to generate classifications of coach development programme types. To identify coach development programmes described within academic research, a supplemental search of an earlier systematic review was conducted. In addition, a broad Internet search was used to identify publically available descriptions of coach development programmes. After extracting information describing the resulting 285 coach development programmes, the research team distinguished 16 coach development programme domains of focus, classified within professional, interpersonal, or intrapersonal domains. Five organizational contexts were also identified in relation to “where” and “why” coach development programmes were conducted, and the coaching context and mode of delivery were also classified. As an effort to bridge applied and empirical realms, the continued use and development of these classifications will facilitate the further progress and synthesis of coach development literature.

As a team leader, a coach plays a significant role in helping his/her players obtain high levels of performance and success; therefore, a coach should possess skills to help his/her athletes accomplish such daunting tasks. We conducted a meta-analysis to evaluate the relationship between coaching behaviors, athlete satisfaction, and team cohesion. Moreover, we examined gender as a possible moderating variable. Two-hundred eighty-eight effect sizes were obtained from 24 studies that used Chelladurai’s sports leadership scale. Overall, a moderate relationship was found between leadership and cohesion, and a large relationship was found between leadership and satisfaction. Training/instruction was the highest contributor for both relationships. Gender moderated both relationships. It is important to recognize the influence leadership behaviors have on the psychological state of players, especially as sports evolve to be more challenging and multifaceted.