Influence of scanning strategies on laser-cladded AISI 420 steel

Abstract

In this study, the influence of different laser scanning strategies on substrate deformation, microstructure and properties of laser-cladded thin-walled 420 martensitic stainless steel (MSS) plate have been carefully investigated. The continuous offset-out scanning strategy (COSS) and continuous raster scanning strategy (CRSS) was compared with the subarea offset-out scanning strategies (SOSS) and subarea raster scanning strategy (SRSS) with different sequences. The results show that the minimum and maximum macroscopic deformation was generated using COSS and CRSS, respectively. The temperature distribution with characteristic of quasi-symmetry was generated by COSS, which can largely suppress the substrate deformation, in marked contrast to a long ellipse symmetry by CRSS. All the laser-cladded 420 MSS layers exhibit lath-martensite microstructure, while some cracks are distributed by using SOSS. The optimal comprehensive performance of the laser-cladded 420 MSS can be obtained using COSS, with smallest outermost deformation of 1.57 mm, superior hardness of 54.9 HRC and wear rate of 0.9626 × 10⁻⁵ mm³/N·m.

Keywords

Laser cladding scanning strategy Martensitic stainless steel deformation temperature microstructure Hardness Wear resistance

Introduction

Laser cladding (LC) is one of the attractive and powerful additive manufacturing and remanufacturing technologies, which is extensively utilized in surface modification of metal materials and low-cost repair of damaged high-value components [1 -3]. LC exhibits a series of advantages such as small heat-affected zone and high deposition rates. Consequently, the coatings/components with high-performance, large-scale and dense microstructure can be ideally obtained under atmospheric condition [1 -3]. However, the LC process is generally characterized by high power density laser input, thus the deformation is still inevitable under the steep thermal gradients generated by the high heating and cooling rate of LC process. Both the dimensional precision and mechanical properties of the components could be severely degraded [4].

In order to reduce the substrate deformation, pre-process, post-process and in-process methods have been studied [5 -7]. However, the pre-process and post-process methods are often accompanied by the increase of production cost and period. In comparison, the processing parameters can immensely affect the substrate deformation, microstructure and properties of the laser-deposited layer via controlling the temperature distribution in process [6,7].

It is widely accepted that the laser scanning strategy is one of the main processing parameters influencing the thermal distribution and substrate deformation [4 -14]. However, there are still a few consensuses on the deformation behaviour and performance of the laser-manufactured parts using different scanning strategies as follows: (1) Effects of subarea strategy on deformation. The ‘subarea scanning’ is also well known as ‘island scanning’ [4], in which the whole laser scanning domain is divided into several sub-areas, and the size of the sub-area is designated as the ‘subarea size’. Wang et al. [14] found that the macroscopic deflection of the direct energy deposited (DEDed) Ti6Al4V decreased with decreasing the subarea size (20–160 mm). On the contrary, Yan et al. [4] reported that the deformation of laser-deposited Ti6Al4V was increased first, and then reduced with increasing subarea scanning length (20–60 mm). (2) Effects of scanning strategies on mechanical property. Wang et al. [9] found that the tensile strength of the as-deposited Ti6Al4V alloy was enhanced by using subarea raster scanning strategy (SRSS) in comparison to a continuous raster scanning strategy (CRSS), and it was believed that the SRSS could lead to a finer grain size, caused by the higher cooling rate with shorter scanning length. In contrast, Lu et al. [6] demonstrated that there was no direct correlation between the scanning strategy and the strength of SLMed Inconel-718 alloy. In terms of hardness, some previous works have verified that the microhardness could be increased by using SRSS rather than CRSS, owing to a faster cooling rate together with a more effective annealing treatment by reducing the scanning length [6,12]. Moreover, the SLMed CoCrW alloy using SRSS exhibits lower hardness because of the lower density, in comparison to the CRSS formed alloy [13]. In addition, there has been little work reported on the influence of scanning strategies on wear resistance of the laser-cladded layer to date.

In this study, the thin-walled AISI 420 martensitic stainless steel (MSS) plate, with wide application in blades, valve parts and cutting tools [15,16], was selected as the substrate. The macroscopical deformation, hardness and wear resistance of laser-cladded 420 MSS using six scanning strategies have been carefully investigated by experiment and finite element simulation. The CRSS, as the most typical scanning strategy applied in laser additive manufacturing [17], is used for the comparison here. The COSS (continuous offset-out scanning strategy), offsetting from the outside to the inside, which is expected to decrease the deformation by reducing early local heat accumulation and preheating the whole substrate. To explore the effects of scanning subarea and sequence, the whole scanning domain was divided into six subareas with two different scanning sequences. One is ‘V’ shape, which can preheat the substrate quickly by keeping the continuous scanning during jumping between different subareas [14,18]; the other one is ‘X’ shape, which starts at a subarea in the corner and proceeds the next subarea with the least heat and so on, is known as the so-called ‘least’ heat influence (LHI) subarea scanning strategy [14,17]. The deformation mechanism, microstructure and performance by using different scanning strategies has been investigated and discussed carefully.

Materials and methods

The mechanically-polished 420 MSS plate, with a dimension of 80 mm (length) × 50 mm (width) × 4 mm (thickness), was used as the substrate. Commercial spherical AISI 420 MSS powders were used as the feed stock with the chemical composition of 0.16C–0.8Si–0.91Mn–0.51Ni–13.09Cr (in wt-% hereinafter), which is quite close to that of the thin-walled 420 MSS plate (0.22C–0.57Si–0.26Mn–0.45Ni–13.61Cr).

LC process was carried out using a XL-F500 fibre laser (Model, Xinglai laser Technology Co., Ltd, China) with coaxial powder feeding system in atmospheric condition. The processing parameters were optimized as follows: laser energy density of 430 W·mm⁻², traverse speed of 600 mm·min⁻¹, overlap rate of 50%, laser diameter of 1.2 mm, powder mass flow rate of 6.5 g·min⁻¹ and protective N₂ (99.99%) with a flow rate of 10 L/min. Six layers were deposited on the 420 MSS plate within a total area of 45 mm × 30 mm, and six different scanning strategies were used, including: (1) CRSS (Figure 1(a)); (2) SRSS, the laser-cladded domain was divided as six subareas of 15 mm × 15 mm. The scanning sequences in these subareas can be ‘V’ shape (SRSS-V, Figure 1(b)) or ‘X’ shape by using the LHI strategy between the adjacent subareas (SRSS-X, Figure 1(c)), and the scanning direction of the latter layer is orthogonal to that of the former layer; (3) COSS (Figure 1(d)); (4) SOSS, the scanning sequences is the same as the raster subarea method, as shown in Figure 1e and f. It is noted that the least heat influence method starts at the first subarea, and the next subarea to be scanned is farthest away from the former one. The sample was air-cooled after laser cladding, and the substrate deformation was measured by the image representation method. A point at every 2 mm interval was selected to obtain the deformation value on the bottom surface of substrate in the z-direction.

To examine the microstructure, hardness and wear resistance, the surface specimens and cross-section specimens were machined from the laser-cladded layer (Figure 1(g)). After mechanically polishing and etching in aqua regia, the microstructure of the cross-section specimens was explored by using a scanning electron microscope (SEM, MERLIN). The surface hardness of the sample was determined by a Rockwell hardness tester (HRS-150) with a load of 150 kg at ‘C’ scale, and the reported microhardness values are estimated as the average of ten separate measurements in the x-direction.

The wear resistance of the surface sample was determined using a ball-disc friction and wear tester (HT-1000), with the counterpart of a 5 mm diameter Si₃N₄ ball. All the wear tests were performed at room temperature with the following parameters: rotating speed 840 rev min(1, rotating radius 3 mm, normal load 10 N and testing time 30 min. The probe-type material surface wear mark tester (MT-500) was used to measure the wear volume of surface sample, and the wear rate (w, mm³/ N·m) was calculated according to formula (1) [11]: (1) where V, P and L are worn volume (mm³), applied load (N) and sliding distance (m), respectively.

Results and discussion

Deformation

Figure 2 shows the macroscopic deformation of the laser-cladded thin-walled 420 MSS plates with six different scanning strategies, including CRSS, SRSS-V, SRSS-X, COSS, SOSS-V and SOSS-X, respectively. It can be found that the deformations are all concave and symmetrical along the centre, bending towards the laser beam.

The deformation evolution of substrate was usually explained by the thermal gradient mechanism (TGM) generated in laser manufacturing process [4]. A steep thermal gradient in the z-direction was generated resulting from the fast heating of the top surface after the laser scanning, together with the relatively slow thermal conduction. Because of the instantaneous temperature increase, the heated area of the upper surface expanded rapidly and became convex. Meanwhile, the surface would be subjected to plastic compression after reaching the yield strength, because of the restriction from the bottom material. Then, the surface temperature of substrate would be reduced quickly during the cooling process, and meanwhile the heated region tended to shrink. Additionally, the lower surface temperature of the substrate was increased owing to the heat transfer effect. Then, the thermal expansion of the material on the lower surface continued to increase, and the yield stress continued to decrease. In consequence, the tensile stress was formed in the surface heated region, causing the concave deformations of the substrate as shown in Figure 2.

During the laser cladding process, the deformations in both x and y directions are much smaller than that in the z direction. Therefore, only the z-direction deformation in the 80 mm length range of substrate was concerned herein. The substrate deformations in Figure 2a–f were measured as shown in Figure 2g, the outermost deformations by the CRSS, SRSS-V, SRSS-X, COSS, SOSS-V and SOSS-X are 6.15, 4.59, 4.91, 1.57, 3.21 and 3.94 (mm), respectively. The minimum and maximum macroscopic deformation was generated using COSS and CRSS, respectively, and it can be calculated that the COSS significantly reduced the substrate deformation by 74.5%, compared with the typical CRSS. In addition, the substrate deformation was decreased for the CRSS sample while increased for the COSS sample by using the subarea strategy. Thus, the reduction of the scanning size is not always beneficial in lowering the substrate deformation. In addition, the subarea scanning sequence demonstrates an insignificant effect on the deformation behaviour, evidenced by the similar deformation values by the ‘V’ sequence and the ‘X’ sequence.

Based on the above analysis, the OSS led to smaller deformation than RSS, regardless of the continuous or subarea scanning. Thus, the OSS and the most typical CRSS specimens were utilized to explore the effects of the scanning strategy on temperature field, microstructure and performance of laser-cladded thin-walled 420 MSS plate hereinafter.

With the purpose of further understanding the deformation behaviour, the temperature distribution using different scanning strategies during laser cladding process is analysed by the Finite Element Modelling (FEM). The size of the model was established according to the actual sample size, and the thermal physical parameters of the material were calculated by JMATPRO software, as listed in Table 1. The establishment of temperature field is mainly based on the different scanning strategies as shown in Figure 1. The laser power density, spot size and traverse speed is fixed at 430 W·mm⁻², 1.2 mm and 600 mm·min⁻¹, respectively. To simulate the laser cladding process, the Gaussian heat source is given by the following formula (2) and (3) [19,20]: (2)

(3)

where R: the distance measured from beam centre, p: laser input power, r: laser beam radius, and η: laser absorptivity of material (0.44).

Table 1

The thermal physical parameters of AISI 420 MSS calculated by JMATPRO.

Temperature (°C)	22	200	400	600	800	1000	1200	1400	1600	1800	2000
Density (kg/m³)	7700
Poisson's ratio	0.29	0.30	0.30	0.31	0.33	0.34	0.35	0.36	0.50	0.50	0.50
Specific heat (J/kg°C)	451	578	857	818	1116	637	656	923	836	843	845
Thermal conductivity (W/m°C)	22.1	23.5	24.6	24.7	26.4	28.8	31.0	32.8	33.8	36.9	40.0
Modulus of elasticity (GPa)	214	205	187	163	132	111	94	40	0	0	0
Coefficient of linear expansion (10⁻⁶°C⁻¹)	10.5	12.7	13.9	14.7	14.8	14.8	14.9	18.3	25.8	28.0	30.3

Temperature behaviour among the simulation domain was defined by the governing Equation (4) [8,10]: (4) where T, , t, , c, Q represents the temperature, thermal coefficient, time, density, specific heat and heat energy per volume, respectively. Given the dimension of the substrate is much larger than that of the laser molten pool, the thermal exchange between the component and the surroundings is predominantly convection heat transfer with heat-transfer coefficient of 10 W/m²·K. The initial temperature of elements and ambient temperature are 22°C. For the finite element simulation, the multi-track model of single laser-cladding layer has been established, and the mass addition was realized by using the birth and death element technique. First, all the cladded layer elements in the model were eliminated by the EKILL commands. Subsequently, the EALIVE command was used to activate the eliminated element step-by-step along with the movement of the Gaussian heat source, and finally the multi-track and single-layer laser cladding was accomplished.

Figure 3 presents the temperature distributions of the thin-walled 420 MSS plate using CRSS and OSS at the end of the first cladded layer. It is widely accepted that the deformation is caused by the nonuniform heating and cooling of the component in laser cladding procedure [5,9]. As a consequence, the elastic and plastic strains will be generated owing to the thermal expansion and contraction mismatch between the laser molten pool region and the surrounding region [5]. Apparently, the temperature distribution of the COSS sample exhibits a quasi-symmetry feature, imposing the restriction on the asymmetric substrate deformation. Similarly, SOSS produces a temperature distribution with an eccentric circle symmetry, which can suppress asymmetric substrate deformation to a certain extent. Howbeit, CRSS leads to a temperature distribution with the shape of long ellipse, and the heat affected zones of the concentrated high-temperature areas adjacent to the laser molten pool are larger than those of the COSS and SOSS samples.

It is generally believed that the thermal gradient is the important factor accounting for the generation of deformations [9]. In comparison with CRSS, COSS can produce a smaller thermal gradient in laser cladding process, as demonstrated by Yu's work [5]. This could be attributed to the preheating effect of COSS when the laser beam is constantly biased inward. Thus, the substrate deformation using COSS is much smaller than that using CRSS, under the dual influence of thermal gradient and temperature distribution.

In terms of RSS, the SRSS experiences a lower thermal gradient than the CRSS owing to two main reasons. On one hand, the subsequent subareas are somewhat preheated effectively by the previous one, resulting in the reduction of the thermal gradient. On the other hand, the residual heat accumulation increases and the heat dissipation decreases owing to a shorter scanning vector in a single subarea [7]. Therefore, SRSS produces smaller substrate deformation than CRSS as shown in Figures 2.

However, the outermost deformation of the SOSS specimen is slightly larger than that of the COSS specimen. It is speculated that the quasi-symmetric temperature distribution of the COSS sample is more beneficial for reducing deformation, compared to the eccentric circle symmetry temperature distribution of the SOSS sample. Meanwhile, a relatively poor preheating effect is generated by using SOSS-X in comparison to SOSS-V, because of the lower thermal effect on the scanned subareas. Thus, the substrate deformation by using SOSS-X is slightly larger than that by using SOSS-V.

Microstructural characterization

Figure 4 shows the cross-sectional SEM images of the laser-cladded 420 MSS by various scanning strategies. It can be seen that the interface zones of the laser-cladded 420 MSS layer and the substrate present a good metallurgical bonding (Figure 4(a–d)). Furthermore, all the samples exhibit lath-martensite structure, irrespective of the scanning strategy (Figure 4(a1–d1)). However, it can be noted that some cracks are visible along the grain boundary of the SOSS sample. This may be caused by the increase of residual heat effect with decreasing scanning length as shown in Figure 3c and d, and thereby increasing the tendency of defect formation [6,8]. Additionally, the scanning sequence of SOSS-V is more favourable to preheat substrate and residual heat accumulation compared with SOSS-X, thereby more cracks are observed. In general, the denser sample can be fabricated using continuous scanning, in comparison with subarea scanning.

Hardness

Figure 5a shows the hardness distribution curves of the laser-cladded 420 MSS layers using different scanning strategies. Apparently, the hardness of the laser-cladded specimens reveals a negligible variation, in good agreement with the uniform microstructure as presented in Figure 4. It can be concluded from the average hardness (Figure 5(b)) that the scanning strategy has no considerable effect on the hardness of the specimens, owing to the similar martensitic microstructure. This is consistent with the minor change in hardness of the SLMed Ti6Al4V using different subarea sizes [8].

The average hardness values of the laser-cladded 420 MSS specimens using CRSS, COSS, SOSS-V and SOSS-X are of 55.6, 54.9, 51.5 and 53.4 (HRC), respectively. It can be found that the SOSS sample exhibits the lowest hardness, owing to the cracks or other defects occurring on the grain boundary. This can be explained by the fact that more heat accumulation during laser cladding process is obtained by using SOSS (Figures 4(c,d)), thereby resulting in a high porosity level and reduced hardness. Similarly, Lu et al. [13] also found that the SLMed CoCrW alloy sample using CRSS displayed higher hardness compared with the SRSS sample owing to the higher density. Moreover, the SOSS-V sample is of more cracks than the SOSS-V sample, which explains the slight hardness decrease of the SOSS-V sample.

Wear resistance

Figure 6 presents the wear profiles of the specimens using different scanning strategies, and the hardness, wear volume and wear rate of the laser-cladded samples are listed in Table 2. It can be seen that the CRSS sample exhibits the lowest wear rate of 0.9162 × 10⁻⁵ mm³/N·m, owing to the highest density level of the CRSS sample (Figure 4). In addition, the wear rates of the laser-cladded 420 MSS using COSS, SOSS-V and SOSS-X are 0.9626 × 10⁻⁵, 1.5397 × 10⁻⁵ and 1.5123 × 10⁻⁵ (mm³/N·m), respectively, showing a negative correlation with hardness. Compared with the typical CRSS sample, the wear rate of the COSS sample was increased by 5.06%. Furthermore, it can be calculated that the wear rate was increased up to 59.95% and 57.11% using SOSS-V and SOSS-X in comparison to COSS.

Table 2

The hardness, wear volume and wear rate of the laser-cladded samples with different scanning strategies.

Scanning strategy	Hardness (HRC)	Wear volume (mm³)	Wear rate (mm³·N⁻¹·m⁻¹)
CRSS	55.6	0.0435	0.9162 × 10⁻⁵
COSS	54.9	0.0457	0.9626 × 10⁻⁵
SOSS-V	51.5	0.0731	1.5397 × 10⁻⁵
SOSS-X	53.4	0.0718	1.5123 × 10⁻⁵

To further understand the wear mechanism of laser-cladded 420 MSS layers using different scanning strategies, the worn surfaces are compared as shown in Figure 7. Apparently, the CRSS sample exhibits the optimal wear morphology, with shallow grooves and no obvious adhesion, indicative of the slight abrasive wear (Figure 7(a and a1)). The grooves were generated after the spalling material is crushed between the 420 MSS cladded layer and the friction pair, with the formation of 420 MSS-abrasive-friction pair three-body friction, resulting in the abrasive particles plow along the sliding direction.

In comparison with the CRSS sample, local peeling scratches and slight adhesion mark of wear debris could be observed for the COSS sample (Figure 7(b and b1)). The debris were exfoliated and adhered to the wear track, because the Si₃N₄ grinding ball generated continuous shaping shear on the laser-cladded layer surface in sliding wear process. The wear mechanisms of the COSS specimen may be primarily attributed to the abrasive wear and slight adhesive wear.

Noticeably, the SOSS sample exhibits the worst worn surface, characterized by slight plastic deformation, obvious adhesion trace and spalling of wear debris (Figure 7(c1 and d1)). As predicted by Archard's wear law [21], wear resistance is positively correlated with the material hardness. Based on the analysis of the microstructure and hardness, the subarea leads to the crack formation, martensite coarsening and hardness reduction, which explains the decrease in the wear rate of the SOSS samples. In addition, the SOSS-V sample exhibits more cracks and lower hardness compared with the SOSS-X sample, thereby resulting in more obvious marks of adhesion and higher wear rate. In general, the wear mechanisms of the SOSS sample are predominantly abrasive wear and adhesive wear.

Conclusions

The influence of scanning strategies upon the substrate deformation, microstructure, hardness and tribological property of the samples have been carefully investigated. The following conclusions can be obtained:

Substrate deformation The outermost deformation induced by CRSS, SRSS-V, SRSS-X, COSS, SOSS-V and SOSS-X are measured as 6.15, 4.59, 4.91, 1.57, 3.21, 3.94 (mm), respectively. The simulation results show that COSS and SOSS produce the quasi-symmetry and eccentric circle symmetry temperature distribution when the first laser-cladded layer is completed, respectively, which can effectively suppress the substrate deformation compared to the long ellipse symmetry generated by CRSS;

Microstructure The microstructure of the laser-cladded 420MSS was composed of lath martensite using different scanning strategies. Some cracks can be found on the grain boundary of the samples using SOSS, owing to the increase of residual heat caused by the lower scanning length;

Comprehensive performance The average hardness of the laser-cladded 420 MSS by using COSS, SOSS-V, SOSS-X, CRSS are 54.9, 51.5, 53.4 and 55.6 (HRC). The corresponding wear rates are 0.9626 × 10⁻⁵, 1.5397 × 10⁻⁵, 1.5123 × 10⁻⁵ and 0.9162 × 10⁻⁵ (mm³/N·m), respectively. Specifically, the COSS sample exhibited optimal comprehensive performance with outermost deformation of 1.57 mm, hardness of 54.9 HRC and wear rate of 0.9626 × 10⁻⁵ mm³/N·m.

Footnotes

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).

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