Abstract
Learning while Black: racial and educational challenges of Black students, is based on a qualitative study focused on the educational experiences of high school seniors, undergraduate and graduate students. Focus groups with students from the three targeted groups revealed that Black students experience several challenges: (1) inadequate student, faculty and teacher representation, (2) inadequate mentoring, (3) isolation, (4) overt racism/microaggressions, (5) inadequate information regarding resources, and (6) mental health issues. This study operationalizes these barriers using students’ lived experiences and quotes. Students also provide insight on possible solutions for addressing racial and educational challenges including hiring Black faculty, and mental health counselors, increasing diversity, racial and cultural training for students, staff, and faculty, and providing mentoring, financial and other resources for Black students. Predominately White institutions can create safer, more inclusive environments for Black students by utilizing these strategies. Students’ resiliency and strengths can also play an important role in implementing these strategies to reduce educational disparities.
Introduction
Racism and its effects on education in the United States (U.S.) have been well-documented over the years. More recent information about racism in education reveals that Black students continue to experience racial struggles across various phases of the educational pipeline from high school through graduate school (Catterji, 2020; House, 2022; Knox, 2023).
Black students encounter different obstacles that affect their mental health and educational outcomes. For example, Black students attending predominantly White institutions (PWI) experience racism, racial microaggressions, racial stress, imposter syndrome, and isolation (Ragland Woods et al., 2021; Stone et al., 2018).
Black students’ perceptions of racism in education have also been documented. Based on the results of a national 2016 Pew Center Survey on racial attitudes and perception in the U.S., 81% of Black students enrolled in college indicated that they have faced discrimination or been treated unfairly because of their race or ethnicity, compared to 59% of Blacks who have never attended college (Anderson, 2016). Furthermore, 55% of Blacks with at least some college education have had someone act as if they were suspicious of them because of their race or ethnicity, and 52% stated that people had treated them as if they were not smart. The percentages for these two areas among Blacks with a high school diploma or less were much lower, 38% and 37% respectively. Results from this survey also showed that when asked whether their race or ethnicity has made it harder, easier, or has not made much of a difference in getting ahead in life, about half (49%) of Blacks with some college experience stated that their race has made it harder for them to be successful, compared to just 29% of Black students with a high school education or less (Anderson, 2016). Black students attending PWIs appear to experience more race related stress and lower support from faculty than Black students enrolled at historically Black colleges and universities (HBCUs) (Anderson, 2016).
Although college enrollment by those who have not traditionally sought undergraduate credentials has increased in the past 20 years, significant barriers to educational access still exist (Espinosa et al., 2019). Gaps in postsecondary participation and success emerge from and exacerbate inequality across demographic groups. Improving access to and increasing success in college is a prerequisite for addressing the barriers facing underrepresented racial and ethnic groups in American society (Espinosa et al., 2019). Between 1996 and 2016, the percentage of Whites, Blacks, Hispanics, and Asians who enrolled in college increased, but there were differences based on racial and ethnic groups. In 2016, the percentage of recent high school graduates enrolled in college was lowest for Black students at 56.5%, compared to 87.4% for Asians. Hispanic and White enrollment was at 70.5 and 70.6%, respectively (Espinosa et al., 2019). In 2019, recent high school graduate enrollment in college was 82% for Asian students, 69% for White students, 64% for Hispanic students, and 57% for Black students (Irwin et al., 2021). Despite these disparity issues, data shows that only 8% of institutions in the U.S. have at least equitable student representation, and these institutions have policies and programs that help students from underrepresented groups graduate at the same rate as the general undergraduate population (Ellsworth et al., 2022).
In addition to enrollment disparities, racial and ethnic disparities in terms of academic outcomes are also part of the educational picture for Black students. Disparities for Black students completing a university credential were noted for 2010 and 2011 cohorts. Espinosa et al. (2019) report that university completion rates for students completing a credential within 6 years of first enrolling in fall 2011 were as follows: Asian 75.8%, White 71.1%, Hispanic 55.7%, and Black 46.0%. Espinosa et al. (2019) highlight that racial differences regarding student retention also surfaced in the university where they started their post-secondary career. Two-thirds of all Asian students (66.8%) completed their degrees at their starting public 4-year institutions, compared to White students (57.9%), Hispanic students (45.9%), and Black students (35.5%) (Espinosa et al., 2019).
Other researchers approach the educational gap in terms of income and social class, and these factors also affect poor Black students. Soria (2018) reported that social class disparities exist at nearly every touchpoint of students’ educational experiences. Soria also indicated that high school sophomores from high socioeconomic backgrounds are more than twice as likely to expect to earn advanced degrees as students from lower socioeconomic backgrounds. In addition, these students are also four times more likely to score in the highest quartile on standardized reading and mathematics tests (Soria, 2018). Students from lower socioeconomic backgrounds are more likely to drop out of high school without a high school diploma (7%) or have a high school diploma as their highest level of education (21%), compared with students from high socioeconomic backgrounds (1% and 3%, respectively) (Soria, 2018).
These educational disparities for Black students do not exist in a vacuum. To reduce disparities researchers must take an in-depth look at the factors and conditions that cause these disparities to gain a better understanding of the specific educational and racial barriers that Black students face. Improving educational services and support structures, and ultimately college enrollment, retention, and academic outcomes is key.
Anti-Black Racism Project
In 2020, in the wake of political and civil unrest following the George Floyd murder and racial injustices experienced throughout the U.S., a large PWI Research One University in Florida allocated $500,000 toward funding research grants that addressed anti-Black racism at a systemic level. This research study, entitled “A Strengths-Based Approach to Addressing Racial and Educational Challenges Impacting Black Students,” was one of 23 grants awarded. Using a strengths-based approach, researchers embraced the philosophy that Success for Black Students = Strengths-Based Solutions (SBS2). This suggests that student success is dependent on solutions that use a strengths-based approach to address challenges. Therefore, while investigating the educational experiences of Black students in high school and university, the study also focused on documenting the Black students’ strengths and identified solutions for addressing their educational challenges.
In light of Florida’s recent educational policy changes impacting Black students’ education, SBS2 findings now take on a greater significance in terms of highlighting Black student disparities, serving as a benchmark for future studies.
SBS2′s multidisciplinary team of researchers collaborated with a community-based agency partner that had a long history of service provision to residents living in the study’s selected predominantly Black, low- and middle-income neighborhood. This neighborhood was selected because of its history as a predominantly Black neighborhood with churches and other community based agencies with strong ties to community residents.
The goals of the study were to contribute to the research on educational disparities, examine Black students’ experiences and challenges in high school and college, and suggest solutions to address identified racial and educational challenges for Black students attending a PWI. The study’s research objectives were to obtain information about students’ educational experiences in high school and college, to assess how racism impacted students’ overall learning and educational experiences, and to develop action plans of solutions obtained from the study. Researchers expected that this study would provide data that could be useful in increasing high school enrollment in college, and improving Black students’ educational experiences in PWIs.
SBS2 was under the purview of the university’s Institutional Review Board (IRB) and maintained ethical compliance, including protection of student data and confidentiality. Special emphasis was given to ensuring that students were not coerced or pressured into participating in the study.
Theoretical Framework
The study used a grounded theory approach which lends itself well to qualitative research methodologies. This approach constructs hypotheses and theories through data collection and analysis (Faggiolani, 2011; Strauss & Corbin, 1998). The grounded theory assumes individuals produce and sustain their own experiences by seeking insight from the world and developing subjective meanings of their lived experiences (Charmaz, 2000; Harreveld et al., 2016). This theory draws heavily on the oral tradition which allowed SBS2 researchers to facilitate in-depth discussions with students about their experiences in high school and college. Researchers also used a strengths-based approach, embracing the philosophy that Black students are in the best position to describe their educational experiences. This framework aligned with SBS2 objectives and ensured that study findings would be grounded in students’ lived experiences.
Methodology
Applied research can generate new knowledge and contribute to theory, but its primary focus is on collecting and generating data to further our understanding of real-world problems (Guest et al., 2013). Focus groups present an opportunity for individuals to discuss their views and encourage open dialog (Krueger & Casey, 2014). SBS2 researchers chose focus groups as the primary method of collecting information on the perspectives, opinions, and experiences of Black students in educational settings. A total of nine focus groups were conducted, three from each targeted student group: high school seniors; undergraduate students; and graduate students.
Recruitment
In collaboration with the community-based agency partner, researchers recruited participants using a variety of methods: sending flyers through social media and emails to student and community organizations, academic advisors, school counselors, and faculty from various colleges. Researchers also used word of mouth to target relevant stakeholders from high schools, community agencies, colleges, and university groups to assist in distributing recruitment flyers.
Focus Groups
Because of the COVID-19 pandemic, the study’s nine focus groups were facilitated virtually by two SBS2 researchers using the Microsoft Teams platform. Three focus groups were held for each of the targeted groups: high school seniors, undergraduates and graduate students. Groups lasted about an hour for the high school groups, and one and a half hours for the university student groups. All focus groups were video recorded and transcribed electronically. Participants received a $10 egift card for their participation.
Participation criteria for the high school focus groups included being a Black high school senior attending any high school located in the community study area; being between 17 and 19 years old; and having an application for enrollment in any college for the 2021 to 2022 academic year. Criteria for undergraduate focus groups included being a Black junior or senior enrolled at a university in Florida during the 2020 to 2021 academic year. Criteria for the graduate student focus groups included being a Black graduate student enrolled in a Masters, Doctorate, or graduate certificate program at a university in Florida during 2021 to 2022 academic year.
Focus group questions were developed based on the study’s research goals and objectives and an examination of the literature on Black student success and racial educational disparities. The research team focused on Racial, Social and Educational Experiences and Challenges; and Individuals and Community Strengths. Questions for the three targeted groups were similar but focused on experiences for that student group’s educational level (Table 1).
SBS2 Sample Focus Group Questions—Graduate Student Group.
Data Analysis
Researchers developed a comprehensive codebook based on the study objectives, literature review and questioning routes. Codes were developed for each of three targeted groups (high school seniors, undergraduates, and graduates) (Table 2).
Examples of Codes With Definitions.
Data analysis included reviewing video recordings of focus groups, coding focus group transcripts, and establishing themes. Data analysis was iterative and conducted on four different levels: individual-dyad-group-macro. First, at the individual level, each transcript was reviewed and coded independently by each researcher in that dyad. Second, each dyad met to discuss the coding of their assigned transcript. Third, after all the transcripts for a targeted group had been coded by dyads, then the dyads met as a group to identify themes that were consistent for all three focus groups. Finally, at the macro level, researchers met as one large team and identified overall themes that were consistent across the nine focus groups.
Focus group themes emerged from the qualitative data that were represented in codes most frequently used in researchers’ analyses of the focus group transcripts. For example, themes relating to student isolation, microaggression and mental health issues emerged from educational barriers, negative social experiences and racism in education codes.
Study Participants
There were 39 students in the study (high school group N = 9; undergraduate group N = 15, graduate group N = 15). All students were Black but diverse in terms of gender, discipline of study, socio-economic status, and age. Students were mainly middle-income (58%) and low-income (39%) with just one student in the study classified as high income. Students ranged from 17 to 47 years, and slightly over half of all students (51%) were either first-generation collegeants or first-generation college aspirants. There was also diversity in employment with most students (67%) working part- or full-time jobs and others not working at all. Students’ social engagement in school and college clubs/organizations varied and social engagement was highest among high school seniors (100%). The diversity in demographic and other factors allowed researchers to get a broad perspective on topics discussed in the focus groups (Table 3).
Participant Demographics by Student Group.
Note. The dash indicates the demographic or other characteristic did not apply to the group.
Not included in the analysis.
Findings
Inadequate Black Representation
Students across all groups identified inadequate Black representation of students, teachers, faculty, and/or administrative leadership as a major problem, especially in college.
. . . I know my first year in the Bio-Med program, I took one class where I was the only African American student. (High School Student) . . .I’m also part of the Honors College . . .out of 2,200 students, only 150 of them are Black. . .So that’s something that I had to really struggle with. (Undergraduate Student) It’s such a critical piece, something that administration can address, just looking at the overall quality of diversity across campus (Graduate Student)
Need for On-going Mentoring
Students repeatedly mentioned the need for more mentoring. especially among university students. Students who were fortunate to have mentors spoke enthusiastically about the positive effects of mentoring. Others suggested that the lack of diversity and inadequate Black faculty and teacher representation accounted for the shortage of mentors for Black students. Mentors provided a variety of tasks such as assisting students to navigate the educational system and providing emotional support and guidance.
Although the reasons for needing mentors varied from group to group, the desire to have mentors remained constant. High school seniors needed mentors to assist in college preparation, offer guidance in life, and be a source of inspiration; undergraduate juniors and seniors found mentors helpful in identifying resources to support them in their education; and graduate students suggested that mentors play a critical role in helping them navigate the educational environment to facilitate successful completion of their graduate programs.
. . .she’s my AVID mentor, has been a big help. . .she’s built connections. . .built bonds with her students to get deeper into their lives to help them whenever they need help, in and out of school. (High School Student) I feel like the minority representation in the faculty and staff is important. . .it was very beneficial to my experience here. (Undergraduate Student) I think it was mainly having a hard time getting in touch with a decent support network, or like a mentor, or something like that. Yeah, I think there’s still a need for a mentor. (Graduate Student)
Sense of Isolation
Students in the study felt isolated. At the high school level, this appeared to stem from feeling misunderstood and perceived as being incompetent or unmotivated to learn. High school students complained of some teachers setting the educational bar very low for Black students which resulted in a mismatch between higher student goals and aspirations and much lower teacher expectations. Some high school students described feeling segregated and suggested that their school should promote racial integration. One high school student remarked: “. . .we can build more clubs to have more people come together and get to know one another.” At the undergraduate level, the sense of isolation appeared closely related to not having a “sense of belonging” or not “fitting in.” At the graduate level, there was also academic isolation, with students feeling unsupported.
It felt even more intense being in a PWI, even as far as like my roommates, they were all White. And then even on the entire floor, I was the only person of color. . .And I wanna say my first two years that really affected me mentally because I just didn’t see people who looked like me. (Undergraduate Student) Since starting my graduate program. . .you’re kind of isolated. . .it gets kind of clicky. When I’m in classes and everyone seems to be able to work relatively well with each other and then it gets difficult for me to like work with people. (Graduate Student)
Confronting Overt Racism and Microaggressions
Students reported experiencing overt racism and microaggressions. Racism involves the use of racial prejudice and racial discrimination as forms of power. Overt racism includes hate speech, systemic racism, institutional racism, discriminatory policies and laws, economic exploitation, racial profiling, police brutality, media, social media, and Hollywood negative racial stereotypes, gaslighting, anti-immigrant sentiment, and attacks and xenophobia (Ni, 2021).
Overt Racism
The SBS2 study showed that racially motivated occurrences happen in social situations on college and school campuses, in residential dormitories, social clubs, and organizations outside of the classroom. The study also revealed that systematic racism exists within the educational culture of students’ learning environments. For instance, some Black high school students admitted feeling left out of accelerated educational programs and feeling as though low expectations of teachers prevented them from really excelling academically. High school students in SBS2 complained that educators seemingly place more attention on students in International Baccalaureate (IB) and Magnet Programs where advanced/accelerated courses are emphasized. High school seniors also reported experiencing racial profiling in school. One student recalled a school resource officer questioning her for being on school premises after school hours, but had no issues with other White students being on campus:
There was a situation like that at the school where our officer approached me about being afterschool too late; but I had a club and we had a meeting it just hadn’t started yet. And I just wasn’t really appreciating his demeanor because he’s like 6′5″ and I’m like 4′11″ so I didn’t really understand why the aggressive tone was necessary. . . (High School Student)
Black students in college similarly experienced racial profiling on their college campuses. One student recalled that the campus police repeatedly investigated innocent gatherings for “stepping” practices. Students living in college dormitories appeared more likely to experience racial slurs and graffiti in dormitories (with no urgency for removal), while Black student organizations were often ostracized.
. . . I’ve literally seen the N word spray painted on walls, on windows, heard it in the hallways. . .And this is a free speech University, so there’s nothing, really, we can do. But there’s a difference between free speech and hate speech. There’s a difference between speech used to incite violence and used to incite fear, versus you running your mouth. (Undergraduate Student) We were in a group on top of the parking garage, for example, where we would be practicing for a step show or something like that and somehow it would always turn into an interaction with law enforcement. (Graduate Student)
Microaggressions
Microaggression is a comment or action that negatively targets a marginalized person or group and can be intentional or accidental. It can be very stigmatizing and harmful (Haghighi, 2022).
High school students expressed frustration in the differences between the way Black students are treated compared to their White peers. Such incidents ranged from a teacher’s innuendos implying that a Black high school student asking for a bathroom break was going to use drugs, to teacher expectations being lower for Black students due to stereotyping and bias. At the collegiate level, microaggression sometimes came from fellow classmates, and were often coupled with faculty passivity. For example, students described situations where a professor allowed or permitted other students to verbally discredit Black students under the guise of intellectual discourse with seemingly no repercussions or recourse even when offensive dialog negatively impacts Black students’ emotional well-being. Students reported instances where faculty opted to apologize or empathize outside of classroom time instead of managing the class more effectively. Students reflected that there were no clear boundaries of acceptable student behaviors and racial sensitivity was sometimes missing from classrooms:
I dealt with a lot of racial microaggressions from students, professors not knowing how to handle it, or not wanting to handle it. . . So really, my main gripe is with microaggressions from White students and White professors and then professors being unable to handle it. I had one of my professors tell me that they had to ask their Black friend how to handle it because they didn’t know what to do or what to say in that moment. (Undergraduate Student) . . . the host did an anonymous survey and she asked what people think about Black women. And you know, in this program, everybody’s so sweet, everybody’s so nice, and, um, everybody’s so therapeutic. I didn’t expect the answers and the answers were “sassy,” “attitude” just very, very, negative things about Black women that came from the people that I know, in my program, I didn’t know who it was because it was anonymous, but that was extremely hurtful. . . (Graduate Student)
Lack of Information is a Barrier to Educational Success
Students complained that they lacked information and knowledge about a number of aspects. This included lack of information about financial resources, who to talk to when they had general questions, or where to go for available resources. In college, students perceived information as being “inadequate.” Black students appeared vulnerable to being left out of the information loop, contributing to feelings of isolation. Students identified the lack of information as one of the main barriers impacting their educational success. Many college students were unaware/uninformed about available campus resources. Black high school students face similar issues and were often uninformed about school resources:
We have a lot of resources and opportunities at our school that a lot of people just don’t know about, and typically the people that don’t know are the African American students that aren’t in the magnet programs and that don’t have those magnet teachers to tell them, hey, we have all these resources at our disposal. (High School Student)
Students felt that they needed to be more informed and aware of resources such as mentors, financial resources (scholarships, grants, internships), social clubs, and other student support programs. College students offered several suggestions for how the dissemination of critical information to Black students could be accomplished. These included utilizing Residence Assistants (RAs) and posting information on the University’s Learning Management System (Canvas) platform which students are known to use frequently. While high school students focused on needing critical college preparation information, undergraduate and graduate students stressed needing critical academic advising and financial support information. SBS2 showed that information is powerful and by increasing student knowledge about resources, this improves students’ overall confidence in school.
Mental Health is a Priority for Black Students
Across the board, but especially at the undergraduate and graduate levels, comments from Black students in SBS2 emphasized the scope and impact of mental health issues. Students mentioned feeling worried, stressed, and depressed. Several reported that they had sought counseling services to help them cope with these issues, and others reported dropping out of school because of mental health issues.
. . .But there have been just academic struggles and just like, mental health as well, just like wanting to, like have the drive to keep on continuing when there are so many different factors that can affect your academic performance. And I actually did have to take a break, like before I started my thesis year, and it was a year break. (Graduate Student)
Mental health issues stemmed from multiple reasons including isolation, limited support and mentoring, financial stresses, challenging workload, mental and physical fatigue, and systemic racism. Some Black students also suffered from anxiety caused by their families’ exceptionally high expectations and the added responsibility of them being the first-generation collegeant. There is also a need to perform at a high academic standard to prove to everyone (including their professors) that they belong in college. This often translates into Black students having the pressure of working much harder than their White peers.
. . .there is pressure to perform and perform at a level that’s higher than, say my counterparts and non-Black counterparts. There is that pressure to perform, and you kind of realize that there’s a smaller margin for error. (Graduate Student).
Financial considerations add yet another layer of complexity to Black students’ mental health, particularly for undergraduate and graduate students. Some students have full and part-time jobs while carrying full course loads which presents an additional level of stress. Even when Black students sought professional help to address their mental health issues, they reported that there is an insufficient number of Black mental health professionals on campus. To complicate matters further, Black students also face the stigma that mental health still carries within many Black families and communities.
. . .Mental health, at least in my community, definitely felt like this forbidden, untouchable, locked door that you’re like, so maybe it’s there, you walk past it, but you avoid it at all costs. And when it was necessary, for me at least, and I did need to seek professional help, you know, you tap on it a couple of times, but your parents or your family won’t listen to you. It’s not always accepted. It’s not a part of their culture. . . (Undergraduate Student)
In high school, students did not mention mental health directly but appeared to internalize their frustrations, fears, challenges, and anger. Concerning racism in school and in the larger community, students portrayed a “no big deal” type of attitude when dealing with racism. Many high school students appeared to let things “roll off their backs” when discussing racism in and outside of school. However, high school students did recommend that having a safe place to discuss racial and other issues would benefit students.
Student Strengths, Resiliency, Family, and Community Supports Facilitate Student Success
Despite these challenges, the SBS2 study found several strengths and resources which contributed to student retention and persistence in high school and college. SBS2 investigated the strengths and resources available to high school and university students. Black students identified core strengths that permitted them to be able to succeed academically despite the educational barriers they face. These included: (1) resiliency, (2) self-motivation, (3) clear academic and career goals, and (4) family and community support.
Students in the study were resilient, self-motivated and had clear academic goals. Immediate and extended family and community members played a critical role in providing emotional, financial, and spiritual support for students at all levels. These resources and supports served as “protective factors” for students. While students discussed the lack of mentoring as a need, this study also found that mentors are an invaluable source of strength for those students who are fortunate enough to have them. Community mentors, aunts, uncles, coaches, and even friends played an informal but important role in keeping students grounded.
In the absence of adequate, consistent, formal mentoring systems within PWIs, family and community mentors take on the vital task of offering guidance, empathy, and understanding to students. The support and guidance given by mentors and immediate and extended family help cultivate a foundation for student success and help students combat challenges.
Discussion
This study found that Black students attending a PWI, experience inadequate Black representation, need mentoring, feel isolated experience acts of overt racism and microaggressions, and mental health challenges. However, the study also found that students use their inner strengths, resiliency, and support from their immediate family to combat many educational and life challenges. These findings have relevance on a broader scale for Black students in PWIs (high schools and colleges) in the U.S.
SBS2 like other previous studies, finds that representation does matter. Having a racially representative learning environment helps create a more culturally responsive learning environment which has implications for better academic outcomes for Black students. Other studies have highlighted the importance of representation in creating effective, more culturally and racially representative environments (Mushonga, 2021; Newsome, 2022). Black representation has positive implications for the mentorship of Black students and their sense of belonging; therefore, appropriate Black representation at the student and faculty levels must play a role in any policy geared toward addressing educational disparities in PWIs.
Cultural and racial understanding among teachers, faculty, and staff in high schools and the university is connected to the issue of representation, making the need for such training a high for PWIs. With limited Black representation in classrooms both in terms of faculty and teachers as well as students, students’ suggestion to implement cultural sensitivity trainings for teachers, faculty, students and staff appears to be a responsive strategy. Cultural sensitivity training can help educate students, faculty, teachers, and staff to create a better understanding of racial obstacles facing Black students. SBS2 revealed that poor understanding of the Black experience results in faculty unwittingly demonstrating racist behaviors and microaggressions. SBS2 researchers believe that racial and cultural sensitivity training at PWIs can help address this issue and make school and college climates more inclusive of minority cultures and groups. This can facilitate a learning environment where students from different races not only co-exist but thrive.
SBS2 students experienced both forms of racism that impacted their mental health. PWIs should consider factors that impact students’ mental health as a potential way of improving Black students’ overall learning experience. SBS2 findings suggest that mental health has implications for student retention and success. This validates other studies that have reported on the impact of mental health on minority students (Goodwin et al., 2021; Mushonga, 2021; Peoples et al., 2023). Microaggressions, systemic racism, and discrimination impact mental health (O'Keefe et al., 2015) and decreased academic outcomes (Keels et al., 2017). Thomas (2017) confirmed that discrimination significantly predicted expectation for students’ success.
SBS2 found that negative perceptions about their learning environment can result in poor mental health outcomes including feelings of anxiety, stress, anger, depression, and isolation. Previous studies validate this finding. For example, Lewis (2018) found that students’ experiences with everyday racial discrimination contributed to students’ overall feelings of anger, loneliness, social isolation, and invisibility in the narratives of their subjective sense of well-being. Other studies confirmed an SBS2 finding that racism both in and outside the classroom leaves students feeling targeted (Hotchkins & Dancy, 2017; Johnson & Strayhorn, 2022; Marshburn & Campos, 2022; Williams et al., 2022). Higher levels of positive mental health and a sense of belonging were associated with lower depression (Peoples et al., 2023). Poor mental health and academic outcomes were found in a study of Black high school students where experiences of discrimination predicted lower levels of academic efficacy and school connectedness, which predicted higher levels of student internalization (Goodwin et al., 2021).
Findings from SBS2 and these other studies underscore the urgent need for PWIs to prioritize Black students’ mental health and confront racism within learning environments. These findings suggest that PWIs can play a key role in addressing racism and creating academic environments for Black students to improve students’ mental health and help reduce educational disparities. However, SBS2 findings show that mental health problems occur for a variety of reasons other than racism. Class workload, employment obligations, and high student and family expectations can also be contributors. Therefore, PWIs should use a comprehensive approach to address the various factors that negatively impact students’ mental health.
Black students and families have a long, documented history of resiliency and strength (Joseph et al., 2001). SBS2 highlights that Black students’ strengths and resiliency coupled with their strong social network, mentors, and resources represent a valuable tool in the effort to address educational disparities. This is consistent with literature supporting the importance of student social networks to the educational success of students of color and students from underrepresented groups (Burt et al., 2019; Mishra, 2020). Mentoring as a protective factor (Mayo & Le, 2023) and the role mentors play in Black student university graduation (Brooms, 2020) further elucidate the importance of mentoring for Black students. While more research on the experiences of Black students in PWIs could add to overall understanding of the full scope and impact of racism on students’ learning at all educational levels, SBS2 provides useful information that can assist PWIs in providing more inclusive learning environments.
Several university policies and strategies to improve educational disparities and create a better college experience for Black students were identified through the SBS2 focus groups and action plan. These include: more recruitment of Black students, faculty, and mental health counselors; more training on diversity, Black culture, cultural sensitivity and inclusion; more financial support and resources; and effective mentoring. Black students’ resiliency, internal motivation, and immediate and external family supports can be used as foundational components to reduce educational disparities.
Recent educational policy changes in Florida impacting Black students and diversity, equity and inclusion initiatives enacted after the completion of SBS2 underscore the importance of research that highlight the racial educational challenges faced by Black students in schools and colleges across the country.
Study Limitations
This study needs to be replicated on a national level to facilitate a broader understanding of Black students’ educational experiences in PWIs across the U.S. Although SBS2 highlights the in-depth, lived experiences of a relatively diverse group of Black students across the educational pipeline from high school to graduate school, it was completed in just one study site. The COVID-19 pandemic impacted recruitment resulting in a sample size of 39 students. Increasing the overall sample size by conducting more focus groups at other national sites will promote wider generalizability in findings.
Conclusion
This study validates the notion that across the educational pipeline from high school to graduate school, Black students are often marginalized and face many obstacles and challenges. However, students possess inner strengths, are self-motivated and resilient, and have strong family and community networks. Collectively, these factors play a critical role in students’ ability to survive, navigate, and persist in their academic endeavors. Strategies that address the challenges highlighted in this article can promote policy changes that create healthier, more inclusive learning environments for Black students. Such conditions can go a long way in reducing educational disparities and addressing challenges that have hampered Black students for decades.
Footnotes
Acknowledgements
Special thanks to the Corporation to Develop Communities, Inc. who played an important role in recruiting high school students for this study and to Dr. Debra Mowery for editing this document.
Declaration of Conflicting Interests
The authors declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.
Funding
The authors disclosed receipt of the following financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article: Funding for this project was made possible through support from the University of South Florida USF Grant Program for Understanding and Blackness and Addressing Anti-Black Racism in our Local, National, and International Communities and the College of Behavioral and Community Sciences.
USF IRB # 001449
