Abstract
A framework of cultural humility has three core tenets: (a) commitment to lifelong, critical self-reflection; (b) recognition and mitigation of power imbalances; and (c) accountability to individuals and institutions. In this article, the author provides a brief definition of cultural humility and apply the concept to frame my analysis of intercultural contexts of music education. By adopting the concept of cultural humility, music teachers can acknowledge their own biases, values, prejudices, and beliefs in relation to intercultural contexts of music education. A commitment to a lifelong process of introspection through self-reflection can help them redress power imbalances that exist in music education and can encourage the building of bidirectionality of relationships with students and communities.
Developing cultural humility can help music teachers analyze their own beliefs and encourage true exchanges in relationships and in learning.
Photo of Hyesoo Yoo is courtesy of the author
Intercultural interactions have become predominant in people’s everyday lives in a globally connected society. The importance of effective relations has received great attention in our increasingly inclusive and globalized world. 1 Physicians, practitioners, and educators have embedded intercultural competence into their professional training and the educational curricula of numerous fields to enact effective intercultural relations. 2 Scholars have recently critiqued this idea’s conceptual limitations, although intercultural competence dominates contemporary approaches to diversity. 3 One criticism of intercultural competence concerns its emphasis on the acquisition and mastery of a finite body of specific knowledge or skills regarding a particular culture because such mastery is impossible. 4 Another critique is that intercultural competence places an emphasis on the “Other,” which is problematic because this focus on the “Other” (e.g., nonwhite or non-Western in the Western tradition) reinforces white as the dominant group. 5
As an alternative to intercultural competence, scholars have suggested a framework of cultural humility, which is defined as “a lifelong commitment to self-evaluation and critique, to redressing the power imbalances in the physician–patient dynamic, and to developing mutually beneficial and non-paternalistic partnerships with communities on behalf of individuals and defined populations.” 6 Physicians Melanie Tervalon and Jann Murray-García first introduced the framework of cultural humility in the context of physician training, and it has since been applied to different fields. 7 The framework has three core tenets: (a) commitment to lifelong, critical self-reflection; (b) recognition and mitigation of power imbalances; and (c) accountability to individuals and institutions. 8 That is, cultural humility can humble practitioners and educators by challenging them to accept their inability to become fully knowledgeable in intercultural interaction. Cultural humility not only catalyzes the acknowledgment of individual biases, stereotyping, strengths, limitations, values, and beliefs; it also encourages a continuous process of reflecting on the “self” through deep introspection. Furthermore, cultural humility recognizes and redresses power imbalances in relations such as practitioner–client and supervisor–supervisee, and it also cultivates the continuous growth of partnerships between people and groups. 9
Although the framework of cultural humility was originally developed to help medical professionals better address the needs of diverse individuals, in this article, I apply the concept of cultural humility to frame my analysis of intercultural contexts in music education. Music educator Huib Schippers, the author of Facing the Music: Shaping Music Education from a Global Perspective, asserts that the approach to cultural diversity is an important factor when more than one culture influences content or pedagogy (e.g., monocultural, multicultural, intercultural, or transcultural). From an intercultural approach to cultural diversity, “music is seen in relation to other musics, compared cross-culturally; may lead to mixing or fusion; and quality is addressed from multiple cultural perspectives.” 10 In this article, “intercultural contexts of music education” refers to the teaching of musics from diverse cultures and teaching students from various cultural backgrounds from multiple cultural perspectives.
In the first section of this article, I use the lens of cultural humility to provide music teachers with essential questions to critically self-reflect on their own beliefs, values, biases, and prejudices relating to intercultural contexts of music education. Following this, I explore some examples of power imbalances inherent in music education and provide several practical applications to mitigate power imbalances that privilege a Western classical perspective over an intercultural perspective in music. Finally, I offer some suggestions to develop collaborative relationships with individuals or groups in intercultural music education. The terms culturally diverse musics or global musics used in this article refer to “musics outside the European and European-derived art music traditions.” 11 For the purposes of practicality and clarity, I have included two Appendixes: (a) a summary of teaching strategies and (b) an activity to implement the concept of cultural humility in intercultural music education.
Commitment to Lifelong, Critical Self-Reflection
Cultural humility requires an understanding of “self” on a deeper level and a commitment to continuous reflection. 12 When applied to the intercultural contexts of music education, this concept guides music teachers in the practice of ongoing self-reflection and self-critique of their own beliefs, values, biases, and prejudices. Here are several essential questions that teachers might ask themselves regarding culturally diverse musics: (a) Do I demonstrate an openness to culturally diverse musics? (b) In terms of music that sounds different from Western classical music, do I recognize my own biases, prejudices, or stereotypes? and (c) How do my background and experience influence these biases, prejudices, or stereotypes?
Additionally, teachers should critically reflect on their music curricula and teaching practices using questions such as (a) How do my own ethnicities, identities, beliefs, biases, and limited vision influence my music curriculum and teaching practices relating to global music education? (b) Do I recognize power imbalances that privilege Western classical music over popular or culturally diverse musics in music-course content and teaching approaches? and (c) How do I make efforts to mitigate these power imbalances?
Teachers are also advised to self-critique their own identities or background in relation to their students. Guiding questions might include (a) How do my identities and values interact with the identities and values of my students? (b) How do my own backgrounds help or hinder my connection to students and communities in intercultural music education? and (c) How can I include the specific expertise of students and their families regarding culturally diverse musics? Within the cultural humility framework, this self-evaluation and self-critique should not be an end in itself but should instead be a lifelong exploration of these ideas. 13
Recognizing and Mitigating Power Imbalances
Cultural humility requires professionals to recognize power imbalances, to seek ways to mitigate these imbalances in the practitioner/client dynamics, and to refuse stereotypes. 14 When applied to music education, despite ongoing discussion about mitigating power imbalances (particularly a Western classical perspective/an intercultural perspective on music), practical progress remains slow in the United States, where curricula remain entrenched in European-influenced conservatory models of music performance. 15 As music educators, we should continue to investigate the obstacles that have encumbered primary change in this area in tandem with new avenues that might overcome power imbalances in music education. To explore new avenues, I myself ask this question: Where do we go from here? A decentralized or horizontal approach, 16 which necessarily gives more emphasis to equity, may help reduce power imbalances between a Western classical perspective and an intercultural perspective on music in music education. To reiterate: (a) How do my own ethnicities, identities, beliefs, biases, and limited vision influence my music curriculum and teaching practices relating to global music education? (b) Do I recognize power imbalances that privilege Western classical music over culturally diverse musics in musical course content and teaching approaches? and (c) How do I make efforts to mitigate these power imbalances?
Musical Content
Although music teachers have endeavored to integrate diverse forms of music in curricula across the United States, they have overwhelmingly emphasized Western classical music, and popular music and global musics are still marginalized. 17 Music scholar Deborah Bradley asserts that this is grounded in the belief that “music of the European canon is superior, and thus the most . . . appropriate for educational purposes.” 18 However, Jennifer Mellizo has questioned whether Western art music can be considered as a core musical system for the world’s music education. 19 Music education philosopher David Elliot argues in Music Matters: A New Philosophy of Music Education that Western classical music is one type among thousands of musics around the world. 20 In this article, I extend these arguments because if music is viewed from a decentralized or horizontal approach, Western classical music is just one type of music, and an excessive emphasis on one type of music can be problematic for the world’s music education in this global society. Educators can use specific strategies to mitigate power imbalances between Western classical music and culturally diverse musics in the classroom.
Instead of exclusively focusing on Western classical music, music educators can develop lessons that focus on commonalities and similarities from across the globe that will help both themselves and their students think broadly, trace transformations of musical genres and styles across time and space, and explore the connections of music that influence one another. More important, these types of lessons can help students honor many diverse forms of musics rather than privileging Western classical music over culturally diverse musics.
Modes of Music Learning and Teaching
In addition to privileging certain types of musical content, Eurocentric approaches to teaching music (i.e., standard written staff notation) have been privileged over aural/oral approaches. 23 From a decentralized or horizontal perspective, we cannot hierarchically rank or consider the learning/teaching of formal Western notational literacy as superior to learning music informally and aurally. That is, instead of a polarized “us” versus “them” worldview, teachers should integrate a pedagogy of equity to reduce power imbalances concerning teaching approaches.
One obstacle to the integration of this “pedagogy of equity” is already existing stereotypes about different modes of music learning/teaching. For instance, even beyond the Western/non-Western duality, some teachers may think that culturally diverse musics should be taught through only oral and aural approaches regardless of genre. Contrary to this belief, global musics have been transmitted through both aural and notational systems, just as Western music has been. 24 For instance, traditional notation systems are a central mode of transmission for the court music of East Asia, and aural approaches are a central mode of transmission for folk music. 25 Thus, teachers should consider adjusting their pedagogical approach to correspond to culturally specific parameters of genre rather than to a deceptive Western/non-Western binary. By doing so, teachers can convey to students the distinct pedagogies of various musics and each music’s culture or period of origin. Exposing students to diverse teaching approaches may enable them to acknowledge different modes of communication in music learning/teaching and not privilege one dominating mode over others.
The Beauty of Sound
People also tend to consider “the beauty of sound” through a Westernized lens. The exclusive focus on European classical musical in school curriculum can cause students to identify with a narrow conceptualization of the beauty of sound. According to the Developmental Model of Intercultural Sensitivity (DMIS), educators in a stage of “Minimization” expect all people to experience all music traditions in similar ways. 26 For example, teachers tend to adjust vocal timbre to fit the bel canto style regardless of the music, whether it be global musics or Western art music. Since the baroque era, the bel canto style has been the desired singing technique, and many believe that the traditional Western tone quality is a good tone because of this Westernized lens. 27 However, from a decentralized perspective, this vocal timbre is simply one type among various singing tones. There exist a variety of different vocal timbres around the world. Examples include the quavering or wavering sound that can be found in the southern Korean region; the Chinese northern vocal style is a higher, shriller, more nasal tone; a more nasal tone with less vibrato characterizes the South Indian vocal style; and overtone singing or harmonic singing (the production of additional overtones above the basic note) can be found among the Turco-Mongolians in southern Siberia. 28 In effect, definitions of the beauty of singing tone can vary, and people from diverse cultures have enjoyed different vocal tones for a long time.
The excessive emphasis on Western classical sounds encourages students to prefer the timbre of the dominant music culture. By shifting a Western classical perspective to those focusing on more diverse sounds from across the world, music teachers and students may have more opportunities to open their ears to examples from diverse musical traditions. This shift will also help music teachers and students reconsider the meanings and beauty of sound and appreciate the sound qualities that distinguish such music from Western styles. In this section, I used vocal tone as one example among various elements of music. To deeply celebrate the diverse sounds from around the world, music teachers and students are encouraged to continue to expand their spheres to other musical manifestations from around the world, such as pitch, tempo, modes, rhythms, ornamentations, structure, and expression.
Working in Partnerships with Individuals, Families, and Communities
Considering Various Contexts
Within the framework of cultural humility, the process of learning about each individual’s culture is a lifelong endeavor because each individual is a complicated multidimensional human being, each with their own history. 29 Applying this concept to the intercultural contexts of music education can help teachers consider the uniqueness of music from different cultures within specific social, historical, and cultural contexts. In the United States, the Western classical paradigm of music education has caused music teachers, specifically ensemble teachers, to place emphasis on “product and outcomes.” 30 Due to this product-and-outcome model, teachers tend to lessen their emphasis on teaching culturally diverse musics in social, historical, and cultural context; instead, they teach toward a final product. 31 Many scholars have discussed the interconnectedness among music, culture, history, society, and politics, emphasizing that teachers and students should understand music from a multidimensional perspective to prevent a loss of meaning. 32
When introducing culturally diverse musics into the classroom, teachers should continually interrogate their own possible ingrained stereotypes. For example, some people may consider musics from Asian countries as very similar or that drumming techniques in various parts of West Africa are similar. Music teachers should acknowledge the oversimplicity of such statements. Some types of music or musical instruments are shared among countries, but “some of the ways that people make music . . . in a particular culture might be unique to its own specific context.” 33 That is, varying degrees of similarity and difference exist in all contexts. 34 For instance, the gayageum (a Korean plucked zither), the guzheng (a Chinese plucked zither), and the koto (a Japanese plucked zither) can all be categorized as plucked zithers (stringed instruments); however, these instruments each sound different and require unique techniques to play. Another example is that despite the proximity of Southeast Asia (e.g., Cambodia, Indonesia, and Laos) to East Asia (e.g., Korea, Japan, and China), vocal styles differ between Southeast Asia and East Asia, and singing styles in each country are quite unique. 35 Because of the complex nature of many music traditions, teachers need to be cognizant of the various contexts such as musical styles, genres, specific locations, or pedagogical approaches. Careful consideration of these varied contexts can help teachers avoid oversimplification and tokenism and provide students with an in-depth understanding of music from different parts of the planet.
Collaborative Relationships
Despite the importance of careful consideration of the varied contexts of different cultures, some teachers can be intimidated because they do not and cannot know every culture. The framework of cultural humility encourages practitioners or educators to acknowledge their inability to become fully knowledgeable in intercultural interaction. 36 Psychologist Ross Laurie states that one part of cultural humility is for professionals to “relinquish their position as expert” 37 and instead calls for the development of collaborative relationships with communities to gain a deeper understanding of their cultural lens. This is a valuable practice for music teachers to use in intercultural music education: (a) How do my identities and values interact with the identities and values of my students? (b) How do my own backgrounds help or hinder my connection to students and communities in intercultural music education? and (c) How can I include the specific expertise of students and their families when teaching about culturally diverse musics?
Rejecting their own expertise encourages music teachers to use community resources by working with culture-bearers of that particular culture to prevent essentializing stereotypes. A culture-bearer refers to an individual “raised within the culture who is a recognized practitioner of the culture’s music.” 38 Teachers can build a connection with culture-bearers at local workshops, universities that have ethnomusicology programs, or schools where immigrant children learn their culture, language, and traditional music. I have personally built a connection with several culture-bearers who gave me ample resources to correct cultural stereotyping of their particular culture. One example is that before I worked with a Japanese culture-bearer, I believed that “Sakura” was a Japanese folk song, but I have since learned that it was originally written for the koto (the Japanese plucked zither mentioned earlier) and became a popular Japanese folk song after lyrics were added to the melody.
Additionally, within a cultural humility framework, practitioners or educators are advised to cultivate a relationship that facilitates “continual, bidirectional learning.” 39 This bidirectionality is critical to understand how cultural humility redresses power dynamics. For instance, there might be students or family members who can sing, dance, or play instruments from different cultures. Teachers can work collaboratively with their students and their students’ families to develop culturally informed resources or pedagogy that contain relevant historical, cultural, and contextual information. This suggestion stands in contrast to the belief that “the teacher is an all-knowing expert,” and it highlights the need for the teacher to be a learner also. For example, I have gained experience in developing Cuban music resources and pedagogy by working with a former student who is Cuban. One of the musical pieces that I learned was “Chan Chan.” In class, this student explained that “Chan Chan” is closely associated with African influences, and he demonstrated the rhythmic pattern (a significant characteristic of Afro-Cuban music) that governs the flow of the piece. Because I integrated his expertise on Cuban music in my classroom, the other students were able to more deeply understand this Cuban work in its historical and cultural context.
Reflection
In this article, I applied the concept of cultural humility to frame my analysis of intercultural contexts of music education. Using this concept, teachers may view themselves as being in the process of learning musics from different cultures while also confronting their own beliefs, values, biases, and prejudices. Teaching with cultural humility can work to continuously redress power imbalances, particularly those that value a Western classical perspective over an intercultural perspective of music. Last, a cultural humility lens encourages teachers to work collaboratively with their students and communities, thus developing culturally informed resources and pedagogies that include relevant historical, cultural, and contextual information. In effect, cultural humility has no designated end point; it is instead a lifelong commitment that reflects on personal and cultural biases, redresses power imbalances, and cultivates relationships with communities.
