Abstract
This study investigated the relationship between emotional self-awareness and confidence in stage performance among Chinese music students with a particular focus on the mediating effects of emotional regulation and performance anxiety. The participants were 426 Chinese students majoring in music and who regularly performed on stage. The double mediating effect was analyzed using PROCESS Macro 4.2 Model 6. The results revealed that emotional self-awareness was positively correlated with both emotional regulation and confidence in stage performance. However, emotional self-awareness was not significantly correlated with performance anxiety. Further analysis indicated that emotional regulation was positively correlated with confidence in stage performance, but was not significantly correlated with performance anxiety. Interestingly, performance anxiety among music majors was positively correlated with confidence in stage performance. The study also found that emotional regulation and performance anxiety sequentially mediate the relationship between emotional self-awareness and confidence in stage performance. These findings suggest that enhancing emotional self-awareness and regulation skills could be highly beneficial for improving stage performance confidence among music students. Such improvements can lead to better performance outcomes and positive performance experiences. This study provides valuable insights for educational and psychological interventions aimed at supporting the professional development of music students.
Performers highly desire confidence in stage performance. While honing technical skills within the artistic field is crucial, these abilities can be rendered ineffective if not properly exhibited during live performances. Thus, performing artists must cultivate both technical mastery and stage confidence to thrive in their careers. This is particularly true for musical artists performing onstage (Zarza-Alzugaray et al., 2020). Musicians’ confidence in their stage performance can significantly enhance both the quality of the performance and the level of audience engagement (Ritchie & Williamon, 2011). Consequently, numerous performing arts education programs emphasize training that develops technical skills and stage presence (Jones & Parkes, 2010). Stage confidence generally develops through intensive training and practical experience, highlighting its crucial role in the ongoing growth of music performing artists (Isıntas & Can, 2021). Therefore, this study explores the psychological variables that can influence confidence in music students’ stage performance.
In this study, we assumed that emotional self-awareness would be correlated with confidence in stage performance. Self-awareness has consistently been linked to confidence and achievement in various domains (Siswanto et al., 2024). Emotional self-awareness has been shown to play a crucial role in performance contexts by helping individuals manage their emotions and maintain composure under pressure (Brown & Ryan, 2003; Jordan & Ashkanasy, 2006). Petrides et al. (2004) found that musicians with higher emotional intelligence are better equipped to manage performance anxiety, resulting in more confident and expressive performances, as emotional self-awareness specifically helps performers recognize and address anxiety, enabling greater control over their emotional state during live performances.
Emotional self-awareness is recognized as a core component of emotional intelligence, which encompasses the ability to perceive, understand, and regulate emotions in oneself and others (Mayer et al., 2008). This multifaceted ability significantly influences performance outcomes by fostering self-regulation and adaptive coping strategies, particularly in high-pressure situations (Liang, 2024; Resnicow et al., 2004). Individuals with high emotional self-awareness have a clearer understanding of their emotional strengths and limitations, contributing to enhanced confidence and control over performance outcomes (Brown & Ryan, 2003). In academic and professional contexts, heightened emotional self-awareness has been associated with improved decision-making, stronger interpersonal relationships, and greater overall performance (Jordan & Ashkanasy, 2006). Given these insights, the present study aimed to further explore the relationship between emotional self-awareness and confidence in stage performance, specifically focusing on music students.
Emotional self-awareness is a fundamental component of emotional intelligence that plays a crucial role in self-regulation and performance in various fields, including musical performance (Liang, 2024; Resnicow et al., 2004). Emotional intelligence encompasses the ability to perceive, understand, and manage emotions, both in oneself and in others. This multifaceted ability significantly impacts performance outcomes by enhancing self-regulatory behaviors and coping strategies during high-pressure situations such as live performances (Mayer et al., 2008). Previous studies have established a robust connection between emotional intelligence and improved performance in artistic settings. For instance, musicians with higher emotional intelligence are better equipped to manage performance anxiety, leading to a more confident and expressive performance (Petrides et al., 2004).
Moreover, emotional self-awareness, a key aspect of emotional intelligence, has been consistently correlated with confidence and achievement across various domains. Individuals with high self-awareness tend to have a clearer understanding of their strengths and weaknesses, which contributes to increased self-confidence and a greater sense of control over performance outcomes (Brown & Ryan, 2003). In academic and professional settings, higher emotional self-awareness has been associated with better decision making, improved interpersonal relationships, and enhanced performance (Jordan & Ashkanasy, 2006). These findings suggest that emotional self-awareness fosters confidence and drives achievement by enabling individuals to effectively harness their emotional and cognitive resources. Given these insights, the present study aimed to delve deeper into the relationship between emotional self-awareness and stage performance confidence, specifically among music students.
However, there has been little research on the psychological mechanisms through which emotional self-awareness impacts performance confidence, particularly in how emotional self-awareness influences confidence in stage performance among college students majoring in music performance. While previous studies have examined the relationship between emotional intelligence and various performance outcomes, most research has focused on domains such as sports or public speaking (Brooks, 2014; John & Gross, 2004), leaving a gap in understanding its role in music performance. Moreover, existing literature rarely delves into the specific mechanisms, such as emotional regulation and performance anxiety, that may mediate these relationships, especially in the context of music education. Therefore, this study focused on the psychological variables that could mediate the relationship between emotional self-awareness and confidence in stage performance. We assumed that emotional regulation mediates this relationship. Emotional regulation is a crucial component of emotional intelligence that plays a significant role in how individuals perceive and manage their emotions (Gross, 2002). This ability to regulate emotions can help manage the negative emotions often experienced during stage performance, thereby enhancing confidence (Thompson, 1994).
Previous studies have established emotional regulation as a key determinant of success in high-pressure settings, yet its mediating role in the context of music performance confidence remains underexplored (Brockman et al., 2016; Kaleńska-Rodzaj, 2021). By addressing this gap, our study aims to expand the understanding of emotional regulation within the unique demands of stage performance.
Research has shown that emotional regulation strategies, such as cognitive reappraisal and expressive suppression, can significantly impact performance outcomes (John & Gross, 2004; López-Íñiguez & McPherson, 2021). In addition, the regulation of emotions through heightened emotional self-awareness has been linked to better preparation, focus, and execution during performance, further underlining the importance of emotional intelligence in the arts (Goleman, 1995). Moreover, the ability to control emotions is linked to higher self-efficacy and better performance under pressure (Bandura, 1997). Therefore, we hypothesized that music students who are aware of their emotions would be better able to regulate them, thereby enhancing their confidence in stage performance.
We also assumed that performance anxiety mediates the relationship between emotional self-awareness and confidence in stage performance. In other words, individuals who are highly aware of their emotions are more capable of reducing their performance anxiety, which may subsequently enhance their confidence in stage performance. Research has shown that emotional self-awareness can lower anxiety levels (Gross, 2002). Performance anxiety significantly affects one’s ability to perform on stage, making it crucial for musicians to manage (Kenny, 2011). Musicians who reframe their anxiety as excitement tend to perform better and feel more confident (Brooks, 2014). Bersh (2022) also found that adolescents learning to play instruments and that have higher levels of music performance anxiety exhibited lower music performance self-efficacy. Despite these findings, research has yet to explore how emotional self-awareness and performance anxiety interact specifically within the population of Chinese college music students. In addition, little is known about whether reducing performance anxiety through emotional regulation could simultaneously boost stage confidence in this unique context. Accordingly, we hypothesized that music performance anxiety among music students could reduce their confidence in stage performance.
Effective emotional regulation can reduce performance anxiety and increase confidence in stage performance (John & Gross, 2004; Kaleńska-Rodzaj, 2023). Kaleńska-Rodzaj (2021) discussed how individuals with emotional regulation skills can effectively manage negative emotions such as worry, anxiety, and fear before a performance, thereby increasing their confidence and ability to perform well on stage. Research has shown that individuals who can effectively manage their emotions are better equipped to handle the pressure of performing, leading to enhanced performance outcomes and greater confidence in their performance (Gharetepeh et al., 2015). Emotional regulation techniques, such as cognitive reappraisal and mindfulness, have been particularly effective in reducing anxiety and improving focus during performance (Brockman et al., 2016; Eisma et al., 2023; Kaunhoven & Dorjee, 2021). This study differs from existing research by integrating emotional self-awareness, emotional regulation, and performance anxiety into a unified framework that examines their combined effects on confidence in stage performance. This approach advances the literature by identifying sequential mediating effects, offering a nuanced understanding of the interplay among these variables in a specific cultural and educational context. Therefore, it is plausible to hypothesize that emotional regulation and performance anxiety sequentially mediate the relationship between emotional self-awareness and confidence in stage performance. Understanding these dynamics can provide valuable insights into improving musicians’ performance outcomes.
This study aimed to investigate how emotional self-awareness is related to stress regulation, performance anxiety, and confidence in stage performance among Chinese college students majoring in music. Furthermore, it analyzed how emotional regulation and performance anxiety mediate the relationships between emotional self-awareness and confidence in stage performance. To achieve this aim, the following research questions were posed: Are there significant relationships among emotional self-awareness, stress regulation, performance anxiety, and confidence in stage performance in Chinese music students? Furthermore, can emotional regulation and performance anxiety sequentially mediate the relationship between emotional self-awareness and confidence in stage performance in Chinese music students. Drawing from the theoretical framework, the following hypotheses were formulated:
Hypothesis 1 (H1). There are significant relationships among emotional self-awareness, stress regulation, performance anxiety, and confidence in stage performance in Chinese music students.
Hypothesis 2 (H2). Emotional regulation and performance anxiety sequentially mediate the relationship between emotional self-awareness and confidence in stage performance in Chinese music students.
Figure 1 illustrates the hypothesized double mediation model used in this study.
Proposed double sequential mediation model.
Materials and methods
Participants
A total of 426 Chinese college students majoring in music participated in the study. Participants were aged 18–30 years, with a mean age of 20.52 ± 1.90 years. Among them, 140 (32.9%) were men and 286 (67.1%) were women. Furthermore, 109 (25.6%) were freshmen, 110 (25.8%) sophomores, 105 (24.6%) juniors, 66 (15.5%) seniors, and 36 (8.5%) super-seniors. Their majors included 287 (61.3%) in vocal studies, 71 (15.2%) in instrumental music, and 68 (23.5%) in music performance arts. Music students who did not engage in live performances, such as those engaged in composing, were excluded.
Instruments
Emotional self-awareness
The emotional self-awareness of the music students was measured using a subscale of the Wong and Law Emotional Intelligence Scale (WLEIS) developed by Wong and Law (2002). Originally, this scale comprises 18 items that assess the following four aspects of emotional intelligence: self-emotion appraisal (four items), others’ emotion appraisal (four items), use of emotion (four items), and regulation of emotion (six items). This study used the emotional self-appraisal subscale. Each item was rated on a 5-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree), and Cronbach’s α for these 10 items was .86 in this study.
Emotional regulation
Participants’ emotional regulation was measured using the regulation of emotion subscale of the WLEIS (Wong & Law, 2002). Example items include “I am quite capable of controlling my own emotions” and “I am able to control my temper and handle difficulties rationally.” Each item was rated on a 5-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). In this study, Cronbach’s α for these six items was .92.
Performance anxiety
Participants’ performance anxiety was measured using the Kenny Music Performance Anxiety Inventory (Kenny, 2009). This scale consists of 22 items and measures anxiety related to music performance, including physical anxiety, performance worries, and worries or fears focused on self and others’ scrutiny. For the purposes of this study, only the total score was included in the analysis, without separately analyzing the subfactors. In addition, these items were also rated on a 5-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). Cronbach’s α was .95 in this study.
Confidence in stage performance
Confidence in stage performance was measured using items from the General Evaluation of Performance Development Scale developed by Klickstein (2009). This scale originally consists of 25 items designed to assess perceptions of an individual’s ability to effectively showcase their skills. For the purposes of this study, 16 items were selected, excluding nine items related to confidence in practice and skill improvement, as these items were deemed irrelevant to confidence in stage performance. The selected 16 items focused specifically on confidence in performing on stage. Each item was rated on a 5-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (not at all) to 5 (always), with higher scores indicating greater confidence in stage performance. The modified version of the scale demonstrated excellent internal consistency, with a Cronbach’s α of .96 in this study.
Data collection procedures
Before data collection, the study was approved by the Institutional Review Board of Sahmyook University (protocol code SYU 2024-06-020). Data for this study were collected through an online survey using a convenience sampling method distributed via a WeChat survey link. We promoted participation by sharing the survey link in online communities of conservatories or music universities in China, where our acquaintances were employed. Participation in the survey was entirely voluntary, and respondents were provided with a small token of appreciation as a reward for their time and effort.
Data collection process strictly adhered to ethical standards. Written informed consent was obtained from all participants prior to completing the online survey. Participants were informed that support would be available if needed during the survey and that they could withdraw from the study at any point without penalty. In addition, they were assured that all data would be used solely for research purposes, kept confidential, and anonymized to protect their identities. All data were securely stored on an encrypted computer for three years and then permanently deleted in accordance with data protection guidelines.
Statistical analysis
All data were analyzed using the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) for Windows 25.0, and PROCESS Macro 3.5. Prior to the data analysis, skewness and kurtosis were calculated to confirm the normal distribution of the variables. Correlational analysis was conducted using SPSS and the double mediation model was verified using PROCESS Macro 4.2 Model 6 (Hayes, 2018). The significance of the mediating model was also examined using a bootstrap resampling of 5,000 and a 95% confidence interval.
Results
Relationship among variables involved in the confidence in stage performance
Table 1 shows the results of the correlational analysis of emotional self-awareness, emotional regulation, performance anxiety, and confidence in stage performance among Chinese music students. None of the absolute values of skewness and kurtosis surpassed 1.0, suggesting that the variances of all variables in this study approximated the normal distribution necessary for conducting parametric statistical analyses (Kline, 2005).
Correlational matrix of emotional self-awareness, emotional regulation, performance anxiety, and confidence in stage performance (N = 426).
p < .001.
Correlational analysis showed that Chinese music students with higher emotional self-awareness tended to have better emotional regulation (r = 0.487, p < .001) and greater confidence in stage performance (r = 0.537, p < .001). However, emotional self-awareness was not significantly related to performance anxiety (r = 0.065, n.s.). In addition, students who demonstrated better emotional regulation were also more confident in their stage performance (r = 0.546, p < .001), but emotional regulation was not significantly linked to performance anxiety (r = −0.067, n.s.). Finally, students with higher performance anxiety tended to have lower confidence in their stage performance (r = −0.187, p < .001).
Verification of the double mediation model for confidence in stage performance
This study analyzed the mediating effect of emotional regulation and performance anxiety on emotional self-awareness and confidence in stage performance of Chinese music students. Before conducting the analysis, we checked for multicollinearity issues, which occur when the tolerance is below 0.2 and the variance inflation factor (VIF) exceeds 5.0 (West et al., 1995). In this study, the tolerances of the predictors ranged from 0.753 to 0.983 and the VIFs ranged from 1.017 to 1.329, indicating that multicollinearity was not a significant concern. In addition, the Durbin–Watson statistic was calculated to be 1.903, indicating the absence of autocorrelation in the sample, as this value is close to 2 (Durbin & Watson, 1951).
The results showed that emotional self-awareness significantly and positively influenced emotional regulation (B = 0.618, p < .001), performance anxiety (B = 0.150, p < .05), and confidence in stage performance (B = 0.388, p < .001). Furthermore, emotional regulation was found to negatively influence performance anxiety (B = −0.120, p < .05), indicating that better emotional regulation helps mitigate feelings of anxiety. At the same time, emotional regulation positively and significantly influenced confidence in stage performance (B = 0.280, p < .001), demonstrating its dual role as a key mediator.
In addition, performance anxiety exhibited a significant negative effect on confidence in stage performance (B = −0.165, p < .001), underscoring the detrimental impact of heightened anxiety on performers’ confidence. To ensure clarity, the relationships among these variables and their respective effects are detailed in Table 2, along with confidence intervals.
Double mediating effect of emotional regulation and performance anxiety on emotional self-awareness and confidence in stage performance of music students.
p < .05, ***p < .001. LLCI: lower level for confidence interval; ULCI: upper level for confidence interval.
Using 5,000 bootstrap replicates, we examined whether emotional regulation and performance anxiety together mediate the relationship between emotional self-awareness and confidence in stage performance among Chinese music students. The results are shown in Table 3. The total mediating effect was 0.157, with a 95% confidence interval (0.1098–0.2096) that did not include zero, indicating statistical significance.
Indirect effects of the mediation model.
A = Emotional self-awareness, B = Emotional regulation, C = performance anxiety, D = confidence in stage performance.
The analysis showed that emotional regulation significantly mediated the relationship between emotional self-awareness and confidence in stage performance, with an effect size of 0.170 (0.1278–0.2171). Similarly, performance anxiety also significantly mediated this relationship, with an effect size of −0.0472 (−0.0472 to −0.0043). In addition, emotional regulation and performance anxiety sequentially mediated the relationship, with an effect size of 0.012 (0.0022–0.0249), which was also statistically significant.
Furthermore, an analysis was conducted to determine whether there were any differences in the indirect effect sizes examined in this study (Table 3). The results reveal that the effect sizes of both simple indirect paths (A → B → D and A → C → D) were greater than that of the sequential double indirect path (A → B → C → D). In addition, the effect size of emotional regulation on the relationship between emotional self-awareness and confidence in stage performance (A → B → D) was significantly greater than that of performance anxiety on the relationship between emotional self-awareness and confidence in stage performance (A → C → D) (0.1455–0.2438). Figure 2 shows that emotional self-awareness significantly influenced confidence in stage performance (β = 0.380, p < .001) even when emotional regulation and performance anxiety were included as mediating variables.
The double mediation model of emotional regulation and performance anxiety on emotional self-awareness and confidence in stage performance.
Discussion
The findings revealed that music students with higher levels of emotional self-awareness tended to have greater confidence in their stage performance. The effect size of emotional self-awareness on confidence in stage performance was substantial, indicating that emotional self-awareness accounted for 28.8% of the variance in performance confidence (r = 0.537). This significant effect underscores the pivotal role of emotional intelligence in fostering self-efficacy and confidence in performance contexts, which corroborates previous research on the subject (Efe & Tutal, 2020; Ishak & Jamian, 2021; Udayar et al., 2020). Emotional intelligence, particularly emotional self-awareness, has been consistently linked to various positive outcomes in performance settings. For instance, Petrides et al. (2004) found that individuals with higher emotional intelligence are better able to manage stress and anxiety, which in turn enhances their performance outcomes. The findings of the current study align with these findings, emphasizing that emotional self-awareness is a critical component of effective performance.
Indeed, the current study found that emotional regulation was closely related to confidence in stage performance among music students. Emotional regulation accounted for 29.8% of the variance in confidence in stage performance (r = 0.546), highlighting the significant impact of emotional management on performance. This finding is consistent with previous research demonstrating the critical role of emotional regulation in performance contexts. For example, Brockman et al. (2016) highlighted the effectiveness of emotional regulation strategies, such as mindfulness and cognitive reappraisal, in managing daily emotional experiences and reducing anxiety. Similarly, Kaunhoven and Dorjee (2021) found that mindfulness-based stress reduction (MBSR) significantly enhances emotional regulation capabilities, which in turn improves performance under stress. These results align with the theoretical framework proposed by Gross (2002), which emphasizes the importance of emotional regulation in achieving optimal performance. This study suggests that the ability to effectively regulate emotions may be crucial for musicians as it helps them manage negative emotions that can arise before and during performances, such as anxiety, worry, and fear.
In the double-mediation model, emotional regulation positively influenced music performance anxiety, and emotional self-awareness had a positive relationship. The unexpected finding that emotional self-awareness is positively related to music performance anxiety raises important questions about the nuanced relationship between these variables. While it is commonly assumed that greater emotional self-awareness would reduce anxiety, this result suggests a more complex interaction. One possible explanation lies in Gross’s process model of emotion regulation (Gross, 2002), which posits that the ability to regulate emotions depends not only on awareness of one’s emotions but also on the strategies employed to manage them. It may be that students with heightened emotional self-awareness recognize their anxiety but lack the regulatory strategies to effectively manage it, thereby exacerbating their experience of anxiety (Gross, 2015). To address this, music educators and coaches could teach effective emotional regulation strategies, such as mindfulness or cognitive reappraisal to help students manage performance anxiety linked to heightened emotional self-awareness (Brockman et al., 2016). Equipping students with these skills can reduce the likelihood of anxiety and enable them to use emotional self-awareness to identify triggers and apply techniques like deep breathing or positive visualization during performances.
Emotional self-awareness was not significantly correlated with music performance anxiety; however, in the mediation model, when adjusted through emotional regulation, emotional self-awareness was found to have a positive effect on music performance anxiety, supporting such an interpretation. This finding suggests that music students who are highly aware of their emotions may also be more perceptive of their music performance anxiety. This heightened awareness could indicate that they were more attuned to the nuances of their anxiety levels during their performance. While this may seem counterintuitive, it aligns with the notion that greater emotional awareness does not necessarily equate to less anxiety but rather to a better understanding and perception of it. Although these inferences are plausible, the complex relationships between these variables should be validated in future research.
Metacognitive awareness provides another perspective on the relationship between emotional self-awareness and performance anxiety (Metcalfe & Shimamura, 1994), as heightened awareness of emotions may lead students to overanalyze or amplify their stress levels during performances. This aligns with research suggesting that metacognitive processes can intensify negative emotions by reinforcing focus on distressing thoughts. It is also possible that performance anxiety enhances emotional self-awareness, as students become more attuned to their physiological and emotional cues, suggesting a reciprocal relationship that requires further investigation. Future research should explore whether specific emotional regulation strategies mediate this relationship, as maladaptive strategies like rumination or suppression may exacerbate anxiety, while adaptive approaches such as cognitive reappraisal or mindfulness could mitigate its effects. This finding suggests the importance of providing music students with practical tools to regulate their emotional states effectively.
This finding aligns with research in fields such as sports, public speaking, and education, where heightened emotional self-awareness can both enhance and hinder performance depending on emotional regulation strategies. For instance, athletes and speakers with strong emotional self-awareness may excel when they effectively manage emotions but may experience heightened anxiety without regulation techniques (Beilock & Carr, 2001; Roberts et al., 2013). Similarly, in education, metacognitive awareness can improve academic outcomes but may lead to stress if paired with rumination (Tarricone, 2011). The evaluative pressures of music performance may intensify these effects, highlighting the importance of integrating emotional regulation training into music education. Interventions like mindfulness-based stress reduction or self-compassion training (Kaunhoven & Dorjee, 2021; Röthlin & Leiggener, 2021), which have shown success in other fields, could offer similar benefits for music students, providing valuable insights for interdisciplinary approaches to addressing performance anxiety.
The results of the mediation model supported our hypothesis, showing that emotional self-awareness positively influences emotional regulation, which, in turn, reduces music performance anxiety. This finding aligns with previous studies that emphasize the importance of emotional self-awareness in enhancing emotional regulation capabilities, which enable individuals to better manage their anxiety levels, particularly in high-stress performance contexts (Brockman et al., 2016; Gharetepeh et al., 2015; Ishak & Jamian, 2021). This suggests that fostering emotional self-awareness can lead to better emotional regulation and, subsequently, lower performance anxiety, providing valuable insights into psychological interventions for music students and musicians. Future interventions could include structured emotional regulation training programs, such as mindfulness-based stress reduction (MBSR) or cognitive-behavioral strategies focused on managing performance anxiety (Brockman et al., 2016; Kaunhoven & Dorjee, 2021). These approaches could be integrated into music curricula or offered as workshops to better equip students with the tools to handle performance pressures.
This study found that music major college students with lower performance anxiety exhibited higher confidence in their stage performances. This finding supports the significance of the sequential double mediating effect of emotional regulation and performance anxiety in the relationship between emotional self-awareness and confidence in stage performance. This demonstrates that increased emotional regulation abilities, driven by heightened emotional self-awareness, can reduce performance anxiety, thereby enhancing stage performance confidence among music major college students. This aligns with Lazarus’s cognitive appraisal theory (Lazarus, 1991), which explains how awareness influences emotional responses through appraisal processes. This interplay suggests that music students can significantly enhance confidence in their performance by cultivating emotional self-awareness and regulation. In future studies, researchers should explore how various types of emotional regulation strategies, such as reappraisal or acceptance, specifically contribute to reducing performance anxiety and improving confidence in stage performances. In addition, longitudinal designs could examine the long-term impact of emotional regulation training on performance outcomes.
This study confirmed that higher emotional self-awareness significantly boosts stage performance confidence among music major college students, emphasizing the importance of understanding emotions in managing performance pressures. Emotional regulation also plays a key role in mitigating performance anxiety and enhancing outcomes. Despite the unexpected positive correlation between increased emotional awareness and performance anxiety, this finding indicates that greater awareness enhances the ability to manage anxiety. Practical applications for music educators and coaches include the development of tailored intervention programs that combine emotional self-awareness exercises with targeted anxiety management techniques, such as progressive muscle relaxation or visualization (Gómez-López & Sánchez-Cabrero, 2023; Muhammad Khir et al., 2024). These findings support the theories of emotional intelligence and self-efficacy, suggesting that interventions to improve emotional awareness and regulation could help musicians manage their anxiety and improve their performance. Enhancing these skills can lead to greater success and personal growth in high-pressure environments.
Limitations of the study
Despite the notable insights provided, this study has several limitations that warrant consideration when interpreting the results. First, the online survey sample may not accurately represent the broader population of music major college students globally or even within China. Future research should use more diverse and representative sampling methods across various stressful scenarios to validate these findings. In addition, the findings may reflect cultural factors specific to China, such as the emphasis on emotional restraint in collectivistic cultures. These cultural influences may limit the generalizability of the results to other cultural contexts, particularly where emotional expression and regulation differ. Future research should explore these relationships across diverse cultural settings to enhance the applicability of the findings. Second, this study was correlational, not experimental, meaning that it is imprudent to definitively assert a cause-and-effect relationship between variables, despite logical inferences drawn from previous studies. Therefore, future research should consider employing experimental or longitudinal designs to better establish causal relationships and examine the directionality of the effects observed in this study. Third, this study did not examine how age, years of training, or performance experience might moderate the relationships between emotional regulation, anxiety, and confidence, which limits the scope of the findings. Further research should explore these factors to provide more nuanced insights and practical implications for music educators working with students at different developmental stages. Finally, because the data were collected using self-reported psychometric instruments, inherent inaccuracies and response biases may have affected the results. Nevertheless, this study offers important contributions to the understanding of music education and interventions for managing music performance anxiety and enhancing confidence in stage performances, potentially guiding further exploration of these areas.
Conclusion
This study showed the critical role of emotional self-awareness and emotional regulation in fostering confidence in stage performance among music major college students. Emotional self-awareness significantly enhances performance confidence, primarily through its influence on emotional regulation and the reduction of performance anxiety. However, the unexpected positive association between emotional self-awareness and performance anxiety underscores the complexity of these relationships, suggesting that heightened self-awareness, without effective regulatory strategies, may amplify anxiety. This finding emphasizes the need for tailored interventions that equip music students with adaptive emotional regulation strategies, such as mindfulness-based stress reduction, cognitive reappraisal, and anxiety management techniques. By integrating these tools into music education and performance training, students can better manage performance pressures, reduce anxiety, and enhance their confidence. Future research should further explore the long-term effects of these interventions and the nuanced dynamics of emotional self-awareness, regulation, and anxiety in diverse performance contexts, providing valuable insights for both educators and practitioners in the arts.
Footnotes
Author contributions
P.Y., Y.J., and K.S. designed the study; P.Y. collected data; K.S. conducted analyses; P.Y. and K.S. drafted the original manuscript, K.S. and Y.J. reviewed and edited; both authors agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Data availability
The datasets analyzed in this study are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.
Declaration of conflicting interests
The authors declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.
Funding
The authors received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.
Ethics approval
This study was conducted in accordance with the ethical guidelines of the Declaration of Helsinki and approved by the Institutional Review Board of Sahmyook University (protocol code: SYU 2024-04-080).
Informed consent statement
All data were collected online with informed consent of the participants. The IRB waived the requirement for documentation signatures for the online surveys.
