Abstract
Emotion-regulation abilities and skills are important determinants of performance success, as they lead to emotional stability and psychological well-being in the course of practicing and performing. Research on musicians’ emotionality has revealed a positive relationship between music performance anxiety (MPA) and the temperamental factors of emotional reactivity, low self-esteem, and maladaptive coping, with sex as a moderator in these relationships. In the current study, we attempted to analyze the structure of the relationships between selected variables using the assumptions of the developmental model of human emotionality as a framework for a proposed MPA regulation model. Students at music academies (N = 196) completed the EAS Temperament Survey, the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale, the modified Levels of Emotional Awareness Scale, the Brief-COPE Inventory, and the revised Kenny Music Performance Anxiety Inventory. The results confirm the regularities found in the general population, female musicians showing more intense negative emotionality, temperamental activity traits, emotional awareness, and the use of emotional support strategies. In turn, male musicians obtained medium results on measures of temperamental traits, and often used problem-orientation and perspective-change strategies for emotion regulation. In general, both male and female musicians scored within the medium range for MPA. Tests of the MPA regulation model showed two pathways from temperamental traits to coping strategies: from sociability to problem orientation, and from emotionality to perspective change. There was a positive relationship between the use of the problem-orientation strategy and MPA. The major predictor negatively related to MPA was the use of the perspective-change strategy. The direction of relationships may indicate that techniques for accepting experience are more effective than control techniques for reducing MPA in the context of public performance.
Keywords
Maria Manturzewska’s (1974, 1990) research shows the importance of psychological determinants in a musician’s career development: inherited personality traits and abilities, social and educational factors, and self-regulation skills and knowledge. The article takes into account these determinants in describing the mechanisms underlying vulnerability to music performance anxiety (MPA), a phenomenon that can significantly reduce a musician’s professional satisfaction and well-being on stage.
MPA is described as an excessively intense, persistent anxiety reaction that occurs when performing in front of an audience, and which hinders satisfactory performance on stage, accompanied by specific physiological, cognitive, and behavioral symptoms (Kaleńska-Rodzaj, 2021b; Kenny, 2011; Papageorgi et al., 2007). MPA is a common problem experienced by amateur (40%, Burin et al., 2019), and elite musicians (56%, Kenny et al., 2014). Studies of MPA focus on understanding the mechanisms of its development and its influence on performance quality and the subjective well-being of the performer.
Developmental models of human emotionality (Saarni, 1999; Zeidner et al., 2003) are based on the assumption that there is an interaction between the temperament of the individual and their environment through socialization and education (external emotion regulation and modeling learning), also taking into account self-directed learning (reflective emotion regulation based on self-knowledge). Multidimensional models of MPA are based on similar assumptions and show the interaction of biological variables (e.g., temperamental traits and musical abilities) and skills developed in the process of socialization and education (e.g., the ability to work on a piece, understand and regulate emotions, and build satisfactory relationships with the environment) in the process of creating a negative approach to performance (cf. Kenny, 2011; LeBlanc, 1994; Papageorgi et al., 2007).
The aims of the current study were (1) to propose an approach to MPA through emotion regulation on the basis of a theoretical model of MPA regulation specifying relationships between biological traits (temperament and sex), emotional competencies resulting from socialization (emotional intelligence and self-esteem), and MPA; (2) to verify the model with the participation of a group of music students; and (3) to show how MPA can be prevented on the basis of the knowledge of the mechanisms underlying emotion regulation described variously as emotional abilities and competencies (Salovey & Mayer, 1990; Zeidner et al., 2003), emotion-regulation strategies (Gross, 1998), and coping strategies (Carver et al., 1989; Lazarus & Folkman, 1984). Although these are distinct constructs we treated them in the current study as complementary attempts to explain human emotionality (e.g. Peña-Sarrionandia et al., 2015). Each can be considered to underlie a coping strategy, the knowledge of which can be used effectively to improve musicians’ emotional well-being and self-efficacy in everyday and professional life.
The structure of temperamental traits
Temperamental traits are inherited and therefore grounded in biology. Together with life experiences, they play an important role in shaping human personality and achievements. According to the EAS theory of temperament (Buss & Plomin, 1984), three such traits in particular, present in early childhood before socialization, are relatively stable over time: emotionality, activity, and sociability.
Emotionality is defined as “the tendency to become upset easily and intensely” (Buss & Plomin, 1984, p. 54). Emotionality is linked to fast physiological responses to stimuli and refers to three negative emotional reactions: distress, fearfulness, and anger. The findings of Masi et al. (2003) and Kelvin et al. (1996) suggest that emotionality traits are associated with anxiety and depression in adolescents and adults. In three studies using the FCB-Temperamental Inventory (Zawadzki & Strelau, 1997) to measure musicians’ temperament, the emotion reactivity trait (emotionality in EAS theory terms) was the main predictor of vulnerability to MPA in male and female musicians (Kaleńska-Rodzaj, 2014; Sadowski, 2020; Szulc & Olszak, 2012).
Activity refers to a high level of behavioral arousal (tempo and vigor) while performing daily activities, and a strong need for tension release. In research on the structure of temperamental traits, two higher-order factors are identified consistently: emotionality (reactivity) and activity (sensation seeking) (Evans & Rothbart, 2009; Ponikiewska et al., 2022). As a rule, they are orthogonal to each other, and their high intensity may constitute a risk factor for overstimulation, where limited possibilities for stimulation regulation (high emotionality) are associated with intensive activity in seeking stimulation (Strus et al., 2022; Zawadzki & Strelau, 1997). A long-lasting state of such incompatibility creates the risk that the individual will develop pathological behavior (Strelau, 1995; see also Kelvin et al., 1996; Masi et al., 2003). Only one study has explored the relationship between these traits and MPA, showing that musicians with low levels of MPA obtained low scores on measures of emotional reactivity and moderate scores on measures of activity, while musicians with high levels of MPA obtained high scores for emotional reactivity and low scores for activity (Kaleńska-Rodzaj, 2014). The structure of both groups of musicians’ temperament reflects effective stimulation regulation, but the sample was small (n = 96) so further research on larger groups of musicians is needed.
Sociability is defined as a preference for being with others rather than on one’s own and may be considered one of the crucial components of extraversion in adulthood (Buss & Plomin, 1984; Purper-Ouakil, 2017). Positive experiences with important others (parents, teachers, and peers) are key factors in musical training and career success (Manturzewska, 1990; Moore et al., 2003). They magnify the sense of community that provides the opportunity to use social support and saves resources when solving problems. Research on the adult general population shows that sense of community is positively associated with self-esteem and psychological well-being, and negatively associated with anxiety (Kałużna-Wielobób, 2017). In some studies of musicians, perceived social support was negatively correlated with MPA (Kaleńska-Rodzaj, 2020; Simoens et al., 2015).
Emotional intelligence: emotion-recognition and emotion-management abilities
The advantage of possessing the trait of emotionality is being able to react to low-intensity emotional stimuli including music, which is the essence of musicality and the basis of effective action in this domain. It is possible to maintain the emotional benefits and reduce the costs of this trait by developing knowledge of and skills in emotion recognition and management, which are two key aspects of emotional intelligence (Drigas & Papoutsi, 2018; Mayer et al., 1999, 2016; Salovey & Mayer, 1990).
Emotional intelligence, a source of a musician’s emotional stability and psychological well-being, is an important determinant of performance success (Manturzewska, 1974; Marin & Bhattacharya, 2013). It has been shown not only to be positively correlated with flow and negatively correlated with trait anxiety but also to moderate the relationship between flow and anxiety (Rakei et al., 2022).
Emotion-recognition abilities
To perform a piece of music in public one must be able to regulate one’s emotions adequately and flexibly. Performers monitor and evaluate their pre-performance emotional state to apply appropriate self-regulation strategies to maintain or change their emotions to a desirable level (Carver, 2004). The more detailed the map of the emotional world (emotional granularity, Barrett, 2004), the better the orientation in the emotions felt and the greater the possibilities of managing them. Emotional awareness develops gradually (Lane & Schwartz, 1987), from the awareness of feeling bodily sensations (level 1) and the tendency to act in a specific situation (level 2), through the awareness of feeling specific unidimensional emotions (level 3), to the awareness of feeling secondary emotions and mixed emotions (level 4 and 5). The results of several studies of the structure of emotions felt by young musicians when performing in public (Kaleńska-Rodzaj, 2018, 2020, 2021a) show how qualitatively different emotional states can be described by musicians as MPA, from univalent negative emotional states of anxiety and sadness (high MPA profiles) to mixed emotional states of anxiety and courage, curiosity, or even joy (moderate MPA profiles). In addition, Kaleńska-Rodzaj (2018) found positive associations between increased complexity of the emotional experience, quality of the performance, and subjective satisfaction with the performance.
Emotion-management abilities
The basis of effective emotion regulation is the possession of a rich repertoire of emotion-regulation strategies and the ability to use them flexibly, taking into account the specific character of the situation, and the individual’s condition, needs, and goals (Kobylińska & Kusev, 2019). According to these authors, effective emotion regulation depends on the interaction between the features of a situation and the personality characteristics of the individual. An adaptive emotion-regulation strategy is the result of considering this interaction and choosing the most appropriate way to deal with emotions in a particular situation.
The number of coping strategies proposed in the literature ranges from 2 to 14. Lazarus and Folkman (1984) distinguished two basic coping strategies: problem-focused, defined as “managing or altering the problem causing the distress,” and emotion-focused coping, defined as “regulating emotional responses to the problem” (Lazarus & Folkman, 1984, p. 150). By contrast, Carver identified 14 different coping strategies using the COPE and brief-COPE Inventories (Carver, 1997; Carver et al., 1989). He recommended that researchers use their own data to distinguish higher-order coping categories (factors), because “different samples exhibit different patterns of relations” (Carver, 2019). Other solutions suggest four (Carver, 1997; Carver et al., 1989), five (Sica et al., 2008), and seven (Jurczyński & Ogińska-Bulik, 2009) factors. The most common are problem orientation (active coping, planning, positive reframing), support seeking (searching for help and sharing emotions with others), and avoidance (venting, self-distraction, denial). Acceptance of emotions is usually represented by a single, discrete factor (Carver, 1997; Jurczyński & Ogińska-Bulik, 2009), but in the research carried out with Italian participants (Sica et al., 2008), acceptance, turning to religion, or using one’s sense of humor was represented by the factor transcendence.
The functional importance of individual strategies can be inferred from their relationship with personality characteristics of anxiety, measured by the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI, Spielberger et al., 1983). Highly anxious individuals were more likely than less anxious individuals to report using denial, behavioral disengagement, emotional venting, and self-distraction, suggesting avoidance reaction. On the other hand, more problem-focused reactions such as active coping, positive reframing, and restraint coping were negatively associated with anxiety (Carver et al., 1989). In the general population, the use of reappraisal strategies correlates positively with well-being and negatively with the symptoms of psychopathology (Aldao et al., 2010; Gross & John, 2003).
The findings of research with musicians have suggested strategies that may be useful for reducing and preventing MPA. Studies of cognitive strategies measured by the Self–Statement Scale (Steptoe & Fidler, 1987) showed that MPA is positively associated with catastrophizing, and negatively associated with positive thinking (Kaleńska, 2004; Steptoe & Fidler, 1987). Musicians with moderate MPA were more predisposed than those with low and high MPA to appraise their performance realistically (Steptoe & Fidler, 1987). A review of psychological interventions for MPA (Burin & Osório, 2016) indicates that psychological techniques derived from cognitive behavioral therapy can be highly effective, especially cognitive reinterpretation (reframing). Research on performance psychology skills training for musicians (Osborne et al., 2014) showed that this cognitive technique was equally useful for regulating physiological symptoms and producing a long-lasting effect in the form of a change in thinking and an increase in musicians’ self-efficacy and self-confidence.
In Fehm and Schmidt’s (2006) research, positive thinking was the most common short-term coping strategy used by students, while the most common long-term strategy was seeking social support (talking to teachers, classmates, or friends). Research on coping strategies measured by the COPE Inventory (Carver et al., 1989; Sica et al., 2008) showed a positive relationship between MPA and social support (seeking social support and sharing emotions with others) and avoidance (denial, the use of drugs and alcohol, and detachment) in advanced music students and groups of professional musicians (Biasutti & Concina, 2014). As Biasutti and Concina explain, social judgment is considered a core factor of MPA, so using a social support-seeking strategy may increase MPA. In their study, these two strategies were also the main predictors of vulnerability to MPA.
Understanding and accepting felt emotions is a core skill in approaches to MPA using mindfulness-based stress reduction (MBSR) and acceptance-commitment therapy (ACT). Mindfulness is used to train individuals in a special kind of awareness that is conscious, non-judgmental, and geared toward the here-and-now (Kabat-Zinn, 1990). The effect of this mindfulness training, for patients with social anxiety (Goldin et al., 2013) as well as musicians with severe MPA (Chang et al., 2003; Farnsworth-Grodd, 2012; Lin et al., 2008), is a reduction in the level of emotional reactivity and an increase in the ability to regulate emotions. In ACT, acceptance refers to self-compassion (Neff, 2003), developed by learning how one’s mind and body function. According to Juncos and Markman (2016) and Shaw et al. (2020), ACT may be an effective treatment option for MPA.
Avoidance strategies such as the use of substances including alcohol and beta-blockers are often used by musicians who perceive them to be helpful (Burin et al., 2019; Kenny et al., 2014). Their short-term effect is to reduce physiological symptoms but not cognitive anxiety resulting from concerns and negative thoughts related to self-esteem (Patston & Loughlan, 2014). It is therefore worth developing musicians’ emotional competencies in the area of knowledge about emotions, and helping to expand their repertoire of emotion-regulation (MPA coping) strategies, so as to enable effective emotion regulation in the long term.
Self-esteem
Emotion-regulation skills are useful to musicians in their everyday practice, increasing the ability to exercise self-control and self-regulated learning (e.g., delaying pleasures, frustration tolerance, and regulating impulses (McPherson et al., 2019; Miksza & Tan, 2015). These may all help professional musicians elaborate the positive cognitive self-concept that is part of general self-esteem. General self-esteem is defined as one’s positive or negative attitude toward oneself, a kind of global self-assessment or the “feeling that one is good enough” (Rosenberg, 1965, p. 31). Individuals with high self-esteem perceive themselves as more gifted, intelligent, and popular; are more persistent; and engage in more activities, often including risky ones (Baumeister et al., 2003).
Positive global self-esteem is negatively related to neuroticism, anxiety, and the symptoms of depression (Rosenberg, 1965; Watson et al., 2002), and leads to emotional well-being (Diener & Diener, 1995; Furnham & Cheng, 2000). In research with musicians, Sinden (1999) found that low general self-efficacy, low self-esteem, certain dimensions of neurotic perfectionism, and emotion-focused coping style were the main predictors of MPA. Low self-efficacy, and low self-esteem were also significant predictors of MPA in Dobos and Piko’s (2017) studies, as were perceived stress level and gender.
Sex
The structure of temperament is different for males and females because they are physiologically different from (before) birth (Zawadzki & Strelau, 1997). A meta-analysis of research on children exploring differences in 35 temperamental traits showed that boys score higher for activity, but differences in negative affectivity attributable to sex are negligible (Else-Quest et al., 2006). It may be that adult women systematically obtain higher scores on measures of EAS fearfulness than men because they are gender-socialized in different ways (Buss & Plomin, 1984; Oniszczenko, 1997; Oniszczenko et al., 2014).
A review of research on emotional intelligence shows that women score higher than men on measures of both emotion recognition and management abilities (Brackett et al., 2006; Cabello et al., 2016; Lyons & Schneider, 2005), for both biological (Baron-Cohen, 2002) and gender-socialization reasons (Sánchez-Núñez et al., 2008). Tay et al. (2019) argue that this is why women seem to be more people-oriented (interested in relationship management), while men are more things-oriented (interested in task management). These findings are true also of musicians, insofar as female musicians reported higher rates of social support coping strategies (Biasutti & Concina, 2014) and a more emotion-focused coping style, while male musicians reported a more detached or problem-focused style (Sinden, 1999). According to attentional-bias theory (Mathews & MacLeod, 2005), higher fearfulness in women (an anxiety trait) may lead to better recognition of potentially threatening environmental stimuli (Bishop, 2009; Eysenck, 2000). Individuals with better recognition of negative emotions are more sensitive to them but, if they cannot manage them, their attention to their current emotional state will be maintained, compounding somatic symptoms, as is the case in panic attacks (Clark & Beck, 2010). The tendency for female musicians to score higher than male musicians on measures of MPA (Biasutti & Concina, 2014; Dobos & Piko, 2017; Kaleńska-Rodzaj, 2014; Sinden, 1999) may be explained by both socialization and cognitive factors.
A theoretical model of MPA regulation
In the current study we sought to analyze the relationships between the factors outlined above, incorporated in a theoretical model of MPA regulation (Figure 1). On the basis of prior research on emotionality in the general population and among musicians, we predicted that MPA would be associated with a specific pattern of emotion-regulation variables (level of emotional awareness and coping strategies), and temperamental traits, taking into account additional variables such as general self-esteem and sex.
The theoretical model of MPA regulation.
Method
Participants
The sample comprised 196 music academy students from Poland (n = 97) and Polish-speaking music students from Ukraine (n = 99), aged 17–32 (M = 22.49, SD = 3.48), 81% in the 19–26 age range. There were 115 women (59%). The proportion of vocalists (17%) and instrumentalists (83%) was not equal; the latter consisted of string players (27%), pianists (23%), and 10% players of wind instruments. There were soloists (28%), chamber musicians (17%), orchestra musicians, and choral singers (55%). Over half of the participants reported that they saw their future as performers (59%).
Materials and procedure
Participation in the research project was voluntary, written informed consent having been obtained. Participants completed Polish versions of self-report questionnaires in small groups.
The 20-item EAS Temperament Survey for adults (Buss & Plomin, 1984, adapted and translated into Polish by Oniszczenko, 1997) was used to measure three basic dimensions of temperament: emotionality (distress, fearfulness, anger), activity, and sociability. Items are rated on a 5-point scale ranging from 1 (not typical) to 5 (very typical). In the Polish version Cronbach’s alpha for the Emotionality scales was between .70-.74, and 0.67 for the Activity scale. The Sociability scale had low internal consistency (Cronbach’s alpha 0.57), but the temporal stability of scores was satisfactory for all five scales (Oniszczenko, 1997). Analysis of the data from our sample of music students produced the lowest Cronbach’s alpha value for the Sociability scale (.55) although satisfactory reliability values were obtained for the other scales (from .70 to .75), with the highest result for the overall Emotionality scale (.87).
The 10-item Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale (SES, Rosenberg, 1965, translated into Polish by Łaguna et al., 2007) is used extensively to measure global self-esteem, defined as attitude toward oneself. Items are rated on a 4-point scale, ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 4 (strongly agree). The possible range of scores for SES is 10 to 40 points with higher results indicating higher levels of self-esteem. The Polish version is reliable, with a Cronbach’s alpha of .81 to .83, and theoretically valid (Łaguna et al., 2007).
The Levels of Emotional Awareness Scale (LEAS, Lane & Schwartz, 1987, translated into Polish by Szczygieł & Kolańczyk, 2000) is a written, qualitative, projective instrument for describing the anticipated emotions of the self and another person in each of 20 scenes. The scoring criteria allow for the evaluation of the degree of differentiation and integration of words denoting emotions (total score). LEAS-PL has high internal reliability (Cronbach’s alpha .87) and validity (Szczygieł & Kolańczyk, 2000). The version of the scale used in the research includes 10 scenes relating to music performance. Seven scenes are modified versions of the original ones, and three new scenes were created according to LEAS rules (see Supplemental material). Analysis of the data from our sample of music students showed that the shortened LEAS had satisfactory reliability (Cronbach’s alpha .71). The possible range of scores is 0–50 points with higher results indicating better emotion-recognition abilities.
The Brief-COPE Inventory (Carver, 1997, translated into Polish by Juczyński & Ogińska-Bulik, 2009) includes 28 statements that represent 14 groups of strategies for coping with stress (see Table 3). Items are rated on a 4-point scale ranging from 0 (I haven’t been doing this at all) to 3 (I’ve been doing this a lot). The Polish version yielded satisfactory psychometric parameters (Cronbach’s alpha for each scale .62-.89, Juczyński & Ogińska-Bulik, 2009).
The Revised Kenny Music Performance Anxiety Inventory (K-MPAI-R, Kenny, 2009, translated into Polish by Kantor-Martynuska & Kenny, 2018) comprises 40 items, where high scores represent higher performance anxiety (total score). Items are rated on a seven-point scale from 0 (strongly disagree) to 6 (strongly agree). The Polish adaptation proposes that three subscales: Proximal performance concerns, Psychological vulnerability, and early parental relationship context. K-MPAI-R has high internal (Cronbach’s alpha .89) and test–retest reliability, and cross-cultural validity (Kantor-Martynuska & Kenny, 2018).
Results
The data were analyzed using PS IMAGO PRO 8.0 (IBM SPSS Statistics 28) and JASP 0.16.2.
Differences in emotionality factors by sex
Given that emotionality factors are likely to differ by sex, data for all variables were compared for male and female participants respectively. Non-parametric Mann-Whitney U tests were conducted because the data were not normally distributed, other than scores on the K-MPAI-R.
Female participants scored higher than the published general population norms for EAS on measures of distress, fearfulness, and activity, while the scores of male participants on all measures of temperament were moderate. As shown in Table 1, women scored significantly higher than men on all measures of temperament except sociability: activity (U = 3457.00, p < .01), distress (U = 3391.00, p < .01), anger (U = 3688.00, p < .05), and fearfulness (U = 2186.50, p < .001). Overall they scored significantly higher for Emotionality (i.e., the sum of results for distress, fearfulness, and anger) (U = 2745.00, p < .001). (Mean scores of particular interest are emboldened in all tables.)
Structure of temperament by sex.
EAS: Emotional Awareness Scale; SD: standard deviation.
p < .05; **p < .01; ***p < .001.
As shown in Table 2, participants’ scores on the short version of the LEAS and the K-MPAI-R were moderate, although they scored higher overall on the SES. Women scored significantly higher than men for emotional awareness (U = 3239.50, p < .001), but men scored higher for self-esteem (U = 3119.50, p < .001). There were no significant differences between men’s and women’s levels of MPA.
Measures of emotional awareness, self-esteem, and MPA by sex.
MPA: music performance anxiety; SD: standard deviation.
p < .001.
As shown in Table 3, participants were more likely to report using coping strategies based on acceptance, positive reframing, active coping, and planning, and less likely to report substance use, denial, and behavioral disengagement. Men scored significantly higher than women for acceptance (U = 3593.00, p < .05), substance use (U = 3530.00, p < .01), and humor (U = 3190.50, p < .001), while women scored higher for emotional support (U = 3455.00, p < .01). There were no other statistically significant differences.
Coping strategies by sex.
SD: standard deviation.
p < .01;*** p < .001.
The higher-order factor analysis on the 14 Brief COPE scale was performed according to Carver’s recommendation (Carver, 1997; Carver et al., 1989). As shown in Table 4, the principal axis factor analysis with orthogonal Varimax rotation revealed five components, cumulatively explaining the variance of 64%: problem orientation, support seeking, perspective change, releasing emotions, and resignation. All extracted factors had satisfactory internal reliability.
Higher-order factor structure of Brief-COPE.
As shown in Table 5, participants scored high on Factors 3 and 5, representing perspective change and problem orientation, with men scoring significantly higher than women for both problem orientation (U = 3,850.00, p < .05), and perspective change (U = 3,850.00, p < .01).
Higher-order factor structure by sex.
SD: standard deviation.
p < .05; **p < .01.
Verification of MPA regulation model
The analysis of correlations between all the variables revealed a significant positive association between MPA and the temperamental trait of fearfulness (r = .220, p < .001), and a significant negative association between MPA and the higher-order coping strategy of perspective change (r = -.301, p < .001). Neither association was moderated by sex although significant correlations between MPA and perspective change were found for men (r = -.309, p < .01) and women (r = -.272, p < .01). For this reason, further analyses were performed on the data from men and women combined (see Supplemental material).
There were significant negative correlations between perspective change and fearfulness (r = -.359, p < .001), distress (r = -.324, p < .001), anger (r = - .143, p < .05), and overall emotionality (r = -.331, p < .001). There were significant positive correlations between perspective change and problem orientation (r = .393, p < .001), and between perspective change and self-esteem (r = .314, p < .001).
To verify the MPA regulation model, structural equation modeling with the maximum likelihood estimation method (SEM-ML) was performed on all 11 independent higher-order temperamental and emotion-regulation variables, as shown in Figure 2.
Verification of MPA regulation model.
In the first model MPA was found to be significantly positively correlated with problem orientation v (β = .26, p < .001), and negatively correlated with perspective change (β = -.40, p < .001). There were two pathways from temperamental traits to coping strategies: from sociability to problem orientation (β = -.19, p < .05), and from emotionality to perspective change (β = -.36, p < .001). Model metrics provided evidence that the model did not fit the data sufficiently well (CFI = .50; RMSEA = .18; GFI = .85).
In the second model testing the two pathways MPA was still positively correlated with problem orientation (β = .26, p < .001), and negatively with perspective change (β = -.40, p < .001), but the pathway from sociability to problem orientation was non-significant (β = -.11, p = .120). This model, shown in Figure3, had the best fit indices, Comparative Fit Index (CFI) = .97; Root Mean Square Error of Approximation (RMSEA) = .06; Goodness of Fit Index (GFI) = .99, explaining 15.0% of the variance in MPA.
The final MPA regulation model.
Discussion
In the present study, we attempted to describe the features of emotionality (structure of temperament, emotion regulation abilities, and self-esteem) using a sample of music students, and verify a model of MPA regulation. Compared to general population norms, men scored moderately on measures of individual temperamental traits, and the structure of their temperament overall indicates effective stimulation regulation. Women scored higher for negative emotionality (comprising distress, fearfulness, and anger) and activity, in line with the general population (Buss & Plomin, 1984; Oniszczenko, 1997). Women’s search for highly stimulating activities (high activity) and vulnerability to negative emotions (high emotionality) may result in overstimulation (Strus et al., 2022; Zawadzki & Strelau, 1997) which may lead in the long term to a depletion of resources and an increase in their vulnerability not only to anxiety and depression (Kelvin et al., 1996; Masi et al., 2003) but also to MPA.
Effective emotion regulation depends not only on inherited traits but also on the individual’s abilities and skills in emotion recognition and management (Barrett & Gross, 2001; Kobylińska & Kusev, 2019). Participants’ moderate scores for emotion recognition and labeling (LEAS) indicates a general tendency to describe emotional experiences in the context of public performance using single emotion words (Level 3). Women scored higher than males, in line with the general population (Brackett et al., 2006; Cabello et al., 2016; Lyons & Schneider, 2005). Recognizing and labeling emotions during performance may enhance emotional granularity (Barrett, 2004) thus enabling effective emotion management (Barrett & Gross, 2001). Our results yielded a negative, albeit weak and non-significant association between emotional awareness and MPA.
Participants were more likely to report using adaptive cognitive coping strategies based on acceptance, perspective change, positive reframing, active coping, and planning than strategies commonly seen as maladaptive (Carver et al., 1989): substance use, denial, and behavioral disengagement. This suggests that music students are likely to regulate their emotions effectively in stressful situations. There were differences between men and women such that men were more likely to report acceptance, humor, and substance use while women made more use of emotional support; these differences are consistent with the literature on musicians (Dobos & Piko, 2017; Sinden, 1999). In terms of the higher-order COPE factors, men scored higher than women for problem orientation (active coping, planning) and perspective change strategies (cognitive reframing, humor, acceptance), suggesting a tendency to regulate their emotions by seeking a solution or accepting the situation and distancing themselves from it. Our results contradicted those of Biasutti and Concina (2014) insofar as we found no significant relationship between emotional support and MPA. For both men and women, perspective change was the only strategy negatively related to MPA.
Male participants were found to have higher self-esteem than women, in line with findings from the general population in Poland (Łaguna et al., 2007). Carver et al. (1989) and Scheier et al. (1994) found self-esteem to be positively correlated with the strategies used by our male participants: active coping, planning, positive reframing, and acceptance. It is worth encouraging music students to increase their self-esteem by using these strategies, which can increase individuals’ experiences of positive emotions such as happiness, satisfaction with life, and healthy psychological functioning in childhood, adolescence and adulthood (Ciarrochi et al., 2007; Diener & Diener, 1995).
Our participants scored moderately for MPA with reference to K-MPAI-R cut-offs (Kenny, 2015) and general population mean (Kantor-Martynuska & Kenny, 2018). There were no differences between men’s and women’s scores for MPA. Unlike Biasutti and Concina (2014), Dobos and Piko (2017), Kaleńska-Rodzaj, (2014), and Sinden (1999), we did not find a mediating effect of gender in relationships between MPA and emotional variables. We did find a mediating effect, however, of perspective change, which may explain the contradiction between our results and those reported previously.
Toward a model of MPA regulation
Despite the lack of differences between the scores for MPA of men and women, and the similarities between their scores for perspective change, we derived our final model from data obtained from the whole sample. This suggests two explanations for individuals’ vulnerability to MPA.
The influence of negative emotionality on MPA was mediated by the use of perspective change strategies including positive reframing, humor, and acceptance. The COPE items loading on to the scales for positive reframing and humor suggest that individuals can deal with difficult situations such as stressful encounters by attempting to experience positive emotions. Using positive emotions to rebound from stressful encounters and finding a positive meaning in such situations seem to be effective coping strategy related to resilience (Tugade & Fredrickson, 2004). Kaleńska-Rodzaj (2018) found that individuals who felt a mixture of positive and negative pre-concert emotions (e.g., optimism, happiness, anxiety, impatience) scored higher on measures of music performance quality than those with high and moderate profiles for MPA who experienced a univalent emotional state of fear and sadness.
Our participants attempted to regulate their emotions by accepting them. Acceptance techniques (e.g., MBSR, ACT) can be useful in reducing emotional reactivity, anxiety (Goldin et al., 2013), and MPA (Chang et al., 2003; Farnsworth-Grodd, 2012; Lin et al., 2008). Acceptance helps individuals to be more self-compassionate (Neff, 2003), showing understanding, empathy, and kindness to themselves, their development, and their efforts.
The influence of sociability on MPA is mediated by problem orientation strategies including planning (e.g., I’ve been thinking hard about what steps to take) and active coping (e.g., I’ve been concentrating my efforts on doing something about the situation I’m in). We were surprised to find a positive relationship between this potentially adaptive strategy and MPA, although this can be explained in two ways.
First, for music students, the term situation may refer to performance conditions, the presence of an audience, the requirements of the piece of music, and their current emotions. In terms of the latter, a large body of literature shows that some strategies (e.g., suppressing expression and monitoring symptoms) are less effective in reducing negative emotions, because the individual’s attention is more focused on dealing with symptoms (Clark & Beck, 2010; Gross, 2014; Gross & John, 2003) than on completing the current task (e.g., performing better). To avoid this problem in the future, it would be worth describing musicians’ coping strategies and taking their content into account, as well as measuring them using a tool that has been tailored specifically to the psychological situation of the performer.
Second, problem orientation can be an adaptive strategy when there is a high possibility of controlling the problem (Osowiecki & Compas, 1998), but a maladaptive strategy when the possibility is low (Penley et al., 2002). With this in mind it would be worth extending the model to include control beliefs such as self-efficacy beliefs, with reference to performing skills, and emotion-regulation skills, as these have been shown to be key predictors of MPA (McCormick & McPherson, 2003; McPherson & McCormick, 2006). These could replace self-esteem, which was excluded from the final model.
Strengths and limitations of the research
We succeeded in developing and testing a model of MPA regulation. Our final model took into account both affective traits, which are inherited, and emotion-regulation skills, which are acquired, in the development of vulnerability to MPA. The results suggest that the use of perspective change strategies has a mediating role, apparently reducing the influence of biological features such as sex and the temperamental trait of negative emotionality on vulnerability to MPA.
Our first choice of tool to measure temperament was the EAS Temperament Inventory because it enabled us to explore the tendency to react with negative emotions, which may increase vulnerability to MPA. The low internal reliability of the sociability scale may have affected our results, so it would be worth using a different tool in future to measure sociability, as well as increasing sample size and recruiting more equal proportions of men and women.
Our findings indicate that a tool for measuring musicians’ emotion-regulation strategies in the specific context of music performance is needed. More importantly, the characteristics of our sample represent a serious limitation insofar as the psychological situation of music students is different from that of professional musicians who have completed their formal music training; both Biasutti and Concina (2014) and Kenny et al. (2014) have found that music students are more vulnerable to MPA than professional musicians. Given the potential differences between instrumentalists and singers, it would also be worth distinguishing between them in future research. Finally, self-efficacy variables should be included in future models of MPA regulation to help capture the role of reflective emotion regulation derived from self-knowledge in the development of vulnerability to MPA.
Practical implications
It is crucial that music psychologists should know about the links between temperament, emotion-regulation abilities and skills, and MPA so that they can serve as educational and corrective influences on students whose temperament is structured in a particular way. If they could recognize musicians’ individual characteristics and the structure of their temperament, they would be able help them use beneficial strategies when practising and performing music, and lessen their vulnerability to MPA.
Research has shown that knowledge about human emotional development can be used for creating a positive attitude to performance. Musicians should be encouraged to learn about their own temperamental traits and how to use a wide repertoire of emotion-regulation strategies taking into account their own emotionality, current needs, and performance goals. The focus of psychological support for musicians should be the development of emotion-regulation training programs teaching musicians how to regulate their performance-related emotions flexibly and self-consistently. Such programs should take into account differences between men’s and women’s emotional functioning; the latter should be helped to regulate stimulation effectively, taught how to diagnose their own temperamental traits, and learn strategies for reducing arousal and restoring the energy resources of the body. It may also be useful for musicians to learn, for example, behavioral strategies for maintaining their physical condition and effective strategies for practising music that include rest, relaxation, and breathing techniques. We conclude from the findings of the present study that the application of perspective change strategies, a cognitive technique, is particularly important for reducing vulnerability to MPA, for both men and women. Each of these strategies helps the individual to control both the physical and psychological situation in different ways: humor enables them to keep a distance; the acceptance of current experiences, emotions, and thoughts enables them to hold on and focus on personal goals; and positive reframing enables the individual to change their mind, so as to become more courageous and open to development.
Supplemental Material
sj-docx-1-msx-10.1177_10298649231173565 – Supplemental material for Emotionality and performance: An emotion-regulation approach to music performance anxiety
Supplemental material, sj-docx-1-msx-10.1177_10298649231173565 for Emotionality and performance: An emotion-regulation approach to music performance anxiety by Julia Kaleńska-Rodzaj in Musicae Scientiae
Supplemental Material
sj-docx-2-msx-10.1177_10298649231173565 – Supplemental material for Emotionality and performance: An emotion-regulation approach to music performance anxiety
Supplemental material, sj-docx-2-msx-10.1177_10298649231173565 for Emotionality and performance: An emotion-regulation approach to music performance anxiety by Julia Kaleńska-Rodzaj in Musicae Scientiae
Footnotes
References
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