Abstract
Sometimes historical reasons determine the way wastes are treated. In several countries, at least parts of the circular economy (CE) concept are based on longstanding traditional practices. A CE involves the closing of material loops or cascading used resources, to prevent waste from occurring, and transforming the resulting residual streams into new (secondary) resources. The strategies and the legislative framework for waste management in any country are important steps towards development of a more CE in which resource efficiency becomes the key driver for both economic growth and environmental protection.
When assessing the interface between the concepts of CE, ‘uncertainty’ and solid waste, it is important to consider multiple approaches. The effective and scaled-up transition to a CE is fundamentally unfeasible without understanding and quantifying both uncertainty and variability. While a few countries achieved good results by implementing the CE, more countries seem to conclude that there is a risk in implementing the CE as a replacement of the existing traditional linear economy, apparently without much analysis and understanding. Recently, production of metals from secondary resources has gained vital importance owing to the depletion of primary resources along with concurrent increase in production/consumption of waste materials that contain base/precious metals and rare earth elements.
Waste management and resource planners should thoroughly identify factors that promote the implementation of a CE, and the societal benefits to be realised. Many questions need to be answered for the transition from the linear economy to the CE in an effective way. What are the areas of intervention to get the maximum results for CE in a particular country? Policies for collaboration between the purchasers and suppliers of materials for working together are required to realise the benefits of a more CE in both the public and private sectors procurement. Public procurement can act as a major driver in encouraging this collaborative approach in key product and service sectors. For instance, what are the standardised methodologies for the practical steps based on evidence from circular procurement pilot programmes elsewhere?
A system needs to be established for low carbon consumption and production in food sectors in countries such as, China, Thailand, Indonesia, the Philippines and other countries in the Asia Pacific region. The questions are, how the food sector can be influenced to become more sustainable? Which are the priority focal areas and regions to be targeted in efforts to shift towards sustainable food systems? Many countries including the small island countries (SID) have focused on the tourism business. In these situations, it is important to consider options for implementing CE principles in sustainable tourism projects. How do tourism products profit economically, ecologically and socially from CE processes? What are the design inputs to extend the useful life of products? How do we nudge consumers to choose sustainable alternatives, such as pre-owned garments, leasing, renting, swapping, repair services and redesign services for the extension of lifetime of products and reuse? What are effective new business models that would increase access to the alternatives, like city planning, support online shopping and allow citizens to opt deliberately for resource-efficient products to reduce carbon footprints of transportation, production and extension of lifetime?
Effective implementation of a CE can give multi-fold benefits if the government encourages and pushes. Seven per cent of Japan’s gross domestic product is generated by the recycling industries alone, which employs 0.65 million people. Circular solutions need not always be the high-tech ones. In rice farming, ducks and fish eat insects, so less insecticide applications are needed; while paddy weed provides nitrogen, using less added fertiliser with a yield of 20–50% higher than industrial farming methods achieved in Japan, India, China and a few major rice-producing countries. In India, cows and buffalos are fed the leftover vegetables from the markets, diverting that material from lower value inputs to composting operations. A major part of the unsold vegetables fed to livestock is converted to cow dung in about 24 h. The cow dung is taken for use as fertiliser or input materials to small bio gas plants improving the Carbon Nitrogen ratio (C/N) ratio of bio fertilisers and producing gas for cooking. By enhancing recirculation of wastes, less than 6% of municipal solid waste was disposed of at landfills in Switzerland, Sweden, Denmark, Netherlands, Norway and Austria by 2015 and in South Korea was 9% in 2011 with a target of 3% by 2020. Eurostat, 2017, reported that Germany reached a recycling rate of 66%, being ahead of all other European countries. People in many cities in Europe, China, India, Indonesia and elsewhere do not buy things; they buy services. The resources are being efficiently utilised within its lifetime by sharing bikes, sharing pool cars, residing in bigger housing complexes, which are popular in many cities. Many people even lease mobile phones, electronic appliances, toys and furniture instead of buying them, adding value in the CE value chain.
It has been recently observed that some countries have passed legislation based on the 3R (Reduce, Reuse, Recycle) and CE principles. For example, the Government of India has revised/incorporated a set of six waste management rules in 2016 including, the solid wastes, hazardous wastes and transboundary movement of wastes, biomedical wastes, plastics waste, E-waste and construction and demolition wastes based on 5R (reduce, reuse, recycle, recover, redesign and remanufacturing) and the CE principles. The Republic of China released its Implementation Plan on Banning Entry of Foreign Garbage and Reforming the Administrative System of Solid Waste Importation (Plan). Importation of other solid waste for which substitute resources are available in China will be gradually phased out by the end of 2019. Implementation of these rules in two major economies, where more than 35% of the world population live, will definitely push the global scenario of CE implementation in a different shape in next few years. In 2015, the European Commission released a so-called Circular Economy Package to move beyond waste management and to see waste as a resource. The Republic of Korea enacted the Enforcement of Framework Act on Resource circulation 2018 and Negative Recycling Management System. It seems the real question here is: When is a bale of recyclable material considered more of a solid waste than an economic resource?
It has been demonstrated that CE can result in many net benefits and support to achieve the sustainable development goals 2030. The keys are to define how to implement CE programmes and what the focus areas should be.
The International Solid Waste Association (ISWA) World Congress, to be held in Kuala Lumpur Malaysia on 22–24 October 2018, has a dedicated session on CE and several of the questions raised here will be discusse
