Towards Career Satisfaction by Career Adaptation Model Among Individuals With Visual Impairment

Abstract

The present study aimed to examine the fit of the career adaptation model for individuals with visual impairment. This study was conducted on 319 individuals with visual impairment. The results demonstrated the relationship between adaptivity and adaption was fully mediated by adaptability and adapting. In addition, career adaptability partially mediated the relationship between adaptivity and adapting. However, the results did not confirm the mediating role of adapting in the relationship between adaptability and adaptation. Finally, the results indicated the full mediator role of adaptability in the association between adaptivity and adaptation. The findings highlighted the important role of adaptability in the career adaptation model to explain career satisfaction. Therefore, intervention programs based on career adaptability can empower individuals with visual impairment and promote career satisfaction.

Keywords

assimilative coping accommodative coping career adaptability career satisfaction visual impairment

Testing the Fit of the Career Adaptation Model among Individuals with Visual Impairments

Loss of vision is one of the most important impairments affecting individuals’ lives in general and their careers in particular. Finding a full-time job is challenging for individuals with visual impairment. Among the existing challenges and barriers, we might refer to restricted mobility, health conditions, travel difficulties, lack of support, job search difficulties, and employers’ negative attitudes (Coffey et al., 2014; Donaldson, 2017).

Psychological obstacles, such as limited exposure to career role models, low self-esteem, low self-advocacy, and low assertiveness (O’Mally & Antonelli, 2016; Papadopoulos et al., 2013) are other related obstacles, which can negatively influence career goals pursuit.

Furthermore, the work context change of the 21st century caused individuals to feel insecure. In this regard, career adaptability is among the positive resources that can help effectively cope with the present unpredictable and changing work contexts of individuals with and without disabilities (Ferrari et al., 2017). Career adaptability includes the four career capabilities: concern, control, curiosity, and confidence (Savickas, 2013).

This capacity is important for individuals with visual impairment because existing evidence indicated that the dimensions of adaptability were related to some highlighted problems in the lives of individuals with visual impairment. For example, O’Mally and Antonelli (2016) showed that individuals with visual impairment have difficulties predicting career-related future such as the date of graduation. Therefore, their future preparation related to career concern can be influenced (Savickas, 2013). In addition, they suffer from low assertiveness (O’Mally & Antonelli, 2016), which is salient in career control (Savickas, 2013). Furthermore, the relationship between self-efficacy and employment has been confirmed among individuals with visual impairment (Zapata, 2020). Career confidence may help them be more efficacious in coping with career barriers (Savickas, 2013). Difficulties in the job search have been mentioned as one of the career barriers among individuals with visual impairment (Donaldson, 2017). Curiosity can help them overcome the obstacles related to exploration by fostering inquisitive attitudes and exploring competency (Savickas, 2013).

As a self-regulation process, career adaptability is the most important element of the career adaptation model. This model refers to the chain consisting of four components: adaptivity, adaptability, adapting, and adaptation (Savickas & Porfeli, 2012). The relationships between the components of this model have been considered by many researchers. For example, the contribution of career adaptability to adapting and adaptation and the pathway from adaptivity to adaptability have been investigated among different groups such as college students (Nilforooshan, 2020), adolescents (Santilli et al., 2017), individuals with intellectual disabilities (Santilli et al., 2014), and workers (McKenna et al., 2016). However, no study has yet investigated this model among individuals with visual impairment.

Conducting such studies among individuals with visual impairment is necessary because, in this model, adaptation (i.e., career satisfaction) is considered as a congruence between outer opportunity and inner needs. Yet, there are unfair employment opportunities for individuals with visual impairment (Victor et al., 2017). Also, this population has special career needs such as access to assistive technology and transportation issues (Wolffe et al., 2013); therefore, investigating the model potential to predict adaption can help propose practical strategies for the future.

In addition, career satisfaction is defined as individuals’ beliefs about how career progress is in line with their own goals (Abele et al., 2011). But there was some evidence indicating that the relationship between goal engagement and goal attainment was stronger among sighted individuals than individuals with visual impairment (Pfeiffer & Pinquart, 2012). So, the pathway of goal engagement (i.e., adapting) on the adaptation may be different for individuals with visual impairment.

Evaluating the career adaptation model among individuals with disabilities may clarify how individuals with visual impairment can use their readiness and resources to reach goal engagement and satisfaction. Actually, investigating this model among individuals with visual impairment can open new horizons in vocational rehabilitation counseling. Therefore, the current study aimed to assess the interplay between adaptivity, adaptability, adapting, and adaptation among individuals with visual impairment.

Assimilative and Accommodative Coping as Adaptivity

Using goal-related coping is known as rehabilitation strategies (Boerner & Wang, 2012). These coping strategies, in terms of assimilative and accommodative strategies, were introduced in the dual-process model (Brandtstädter & Renner, 1990; Brandtstädter & Rothermund, 2002). Assimilative and accommodative modes denote the tendency and willingness to cope with disequilibrium (Brandtstädter, 2009), and they are self-regulating resources used in the face of discrepancies between desired goals and actual situations. These coping modes operate differently and facilitate the congruence between current and ideal states (Brandtstädter & Rothermund, 2002; Tolentino et al., 2013). When people use assimilative strategies, they are engaged in their goals. In this mode, a person attempts to increase compensatory efforts to cope with limitations and barriers (Brandtstädter & Rothermund, 2003). In addition, in assimilative mode, the information that makes salient difficulty in attaining goals is not considered, and the information that facilitates achieving their goals is appreciated (Brandtstädter & Rothermund, 2002). In summary, the assimilative style of goal coping management is conceptualized as tenacious goal pursuit (TGP), which addresses the “tendency to tenaciously pursue goals even in the face of obstacles and under high risk of failure”(Brandtstädter & Renner, 1990, p. 61). TGP refers to “intentional attempts to change the environment so that individuals can achieve their goals” (Heckhausen, 2003, p. 358). So, TGP means “actively adjusting circumstances to personal preferences, as such, greater involvement in task-oriented strategies” (Brands et al., 2014, p. 854).

On the contrary, accommodative style goal coping management is known as the flexible goal adjustment (FGA) that implies the “tendency to positively reinterpret initially aversive situations and to relinquish blocked goal perspectives easily” (Brandtstädter & Renner, 1990, p. 61). “Accommodative effort is a mechanism that aims to reduce discrepancies between actual situations and favorable states by downgrading, disengagement, blocking goals, rescaling ambitions, self-evaluative standards, the positive reappraisal of the status, and finding positive meaning in losses and aversive life changes that appear irreversible” (Brandtstädter, 2009, p. 54). Therefore, individuals modify their goals to establish congruence between current circumstances and situational constraints in this mode (Brandtstädter & Rothermund, 2002).

Both types of goal coping strategies are positively associated with life satisfaction (Salimi et al., 2021) and career satisfaction (Tolentino et al., 2013). Tolentino et al. (2013) stated that assimilative and accommodative resources could promote the allocation of adaptability resources and trigger willingness to change. While accommodative resources are employed for re-influencing life situations, assimilative attempts are determined by perceived control. Although the self-determination feature of assimilative tenacity and career adaptability face many obstacles and changes, it accelerates aspiration pursuit. Similarly, career adaptability, that is, the capacity to manage new situations, is congruent with positive readjustment, integral in accommodative flexibility (Tolentino et al., 2013). Therefore, assimilative and accommodative coping strategies could be conceptualized as adaptivity, which is defined as “personality traits of flexibility or willingness to change” (Savickas & Porfeli, 2012, p. 662) and is “a compound trait in the form of self-regulative tendencies” (Tolentino et al., 2014, p. 41). Haratsis et al. (2015a) showed that assimilative and accommodative strategies are significantly positively correlated with goal engagement and goal disengagement, respectively. In this study, we considered using assimilative and accommodative coping strategies as adaptivity. Based on the career adaptation model (Savickas, 2013), they are related to adaptability, adapting, and adaptation outcomes. In other words, adaptivity may lead to adaptation through career adaptability and adapting. Therefore, as shown in Figure 1, the first hypothesis is made in this model.

Career adaptability and adapting mediate the relationship between adaptivity and adaptation among individuals with visual impairment

Career Adaptability

Career adaptability is one of the most significant constructs in the career adaptation model developed from similar concepts such as career maturity and adjustment (McIlveen & Midgley, 2015). Career adaptability denotes psychosocial and self-regulation resources that help individuals meet changing conditions, accomplish vocational tasks and cope with transitions and traumas. As stated by Savickas (2013), career adaptability refers to individuals’ abilities about changes and the future. It is a power that makes individuals concerned about their career exercise, control over vocational tasks, cope with transitions, and traumas, display curiosity in exploring the fit between oneself and the work environment, and be confident to act on interest. Therefore, concern, control, curiosity, and confidence are the four dimensions of career adaptability (Savickas, 2013). As the second construct in the career adaptation chain (Savickas, 2013), career adaptability can be predicted by adaptivity indicators such as assimilative and accommodative coping resources (Tolentino et al., 2013). Also, career adaptability can predict cognitive and behavioral adapting such as planning, engagement, and self-efficacy (Rudolph et al., 2017). Moreover, career adaptability is related to adaptation in terms of career satisfaction (Chan & Mai, 2015; McKenna et al., 2016; Tolentino et al., 2013). Therefore, considering the career adaptation model chain (Savickas & Porfeli, 2012), career adaptability is influenced by adaptivity. Also, career adaptability may predict the next component, namely, adapting. Therefore, it was hypothesized that adaptivity is related to adapting behavior via adaptability. So, the second hypothesis is made in this model (see Figure 1).

Career adaptability mediates the relationship between adaptivity and adapting among individuals with visual impairment.

In this research career, goal engagement has been considered as adapting behavior. Because goal engagement is more important in populations with fewer employment opportunities (Haase et al., 2008), such as individuals with visual impairment.

Career Goal Engagement as Adapting Behavior

Personal goals are defined as the intention to engage in specific activities or generate specific results (Bandura, 1986). One of the most important goals of young adults (i.e., career goals) is related to career tasks (Shulman & Nurmi, 2010). Haase et al. (2008) stated that when a person actively pursues their goals, goal engagement realizes (Haase et al., 2008). Haase et al. (2008) showed that engagement in career-related goals is necessary for achieving the desired career goal for individuals who experienced undesirable employment opportunities. However, Pfeiffer and Pinquart (2012) found that the role of career goal engagement in predicting goal attainment is more salient for sighted individuals rather than individuals with visual impairment. Goal engagement is the most prominent outcome of using assimilative resources (Brandtstädter & Rothermund, 2002). In this regard, Haratsis et al. (2015b) found using assimilative resources is related to career goal engagement by the mediating role of career goal appraisal and career attitude. Career goal engagement may be considered an adapting behavior. Adapting behaviors refers to behaviors required for accomplishing career development tasks and coping with transitions and traumas (Savickas & Porfeli, 2012). As stated by Savickas (2013), adapting can be affected by adaptability and also influences adaptation. Therefore, the third hypothesis is made.

H3: Adapting mediates the relationship between adaptability and adaption among individuals with visual impairment.

Because of various obstacles in the career lives of individuals with visual impairment (Donaldson, 2017), it seems they are not satisfied with their careers. Therefore, career satisfaction has been accounted as the adaptation outcome in this research.

Career Satisfaction as an Outcome of Adaptation

Career satisfaction refers to individuals’ perception of current career achievement, their expectations about the future of career development, and their beliefs about how their career progress is in line with their own goals, values, and preferences, and their appraisals of their career (Abele et al., 2011). Career satisfaction can be regarded as an indicator of good harmonic adaptation (Savickas, 2013). In other words, adaptation is a good fit, which indicates satisfaction (Savickas & Porfeli, 2012). Empirical evidence showed that career satisfaction, as an indicator of adaptation, could be influenced by assimilative and accommodative coping resources (Tolentino et al., 2013) and career adaptability (Chan & Mai, 2015; McKenna et al., 2016; Tolentino et al., 2013). To sum it up, willingness or adaptivity via self-regulation resources (i.e., career adaptability) and adapting behavior lead to adaptation results such as career satisfaction.

Method

Participants and Procedures

The participants included 319 adult individuals with visual impairment, of whom 169 were men and 150 were women, with a mean age of 28.24 (SD = 4.86). The mean age of women was 28.4 (SD = 4.81), and the mean age of men was 28.10 (SD = 4.92). The Hoelter’s index as a criterion of critical sample size is reported in the result section. All participants confirmed that they had a congenital disability. 93 (29.2%) of the participants did not disclose the causes of their visual impairment to the researchers. However, for the rest of the participants, the causes of the visual impairment were as follows: retinitis pigmentosa (20.7%), glaucoma (14.4%), trachoma (13.4%), corneal opacity (18.2%), and cataract (4.1%). The participants were members of university centers for visual impairments. Concerning education, 68 individuals (21.3%) had a diploma, 13 individuals had an associate degree (4.1%), 146 (45.8%) of them had a bachelor’s degree, 86 (27%) had a master’s degree, and six (1.9%) were PhD holders. Also, they had at least 1 year of work experience. This study was initially approved by the ethics committee of the University of Isfahan. Participation in this study was voluntary. Through announcements posted on two websites for individuals with visual impairment, the volunteers were asked to participate in this study. The participants completed scales through the link posted by the authors on the websites, voice calls, Whatsapp Messenger, and also via email. Before contacting the participants and sending e-mails, we asked the administrators of two university centers for visual impairments to inform them about this research. Anonymity was ensured by asking participants to use a pseudonym instead of their real names. The Persian versions of all instruments were used for data collection. The back-translation technique (Brislin et al., 1973) was employed to validate the Satisfaction with Career Progress and Career Goal engagement Scales in Persian. The translated versions of these scales were back-translated into English by an Iranian professional with a high level of proficiency in English. Then, the back-translated versions of Scales were sent to Peter Creed, who adapted Career Satisfaction Scale (Greenhaus et al., 1990) for youth. Creed also modified the Selective Primary Control Subscale of the Optimization in Primary and Secondary Control Scale (Haase et al., 2008) to measure individuals’ engagement in career goals (Haratsis et al., 2015b). The Persian versions of Adapt-abilities Scale and Assimilation and Accommodation Scales had been previously validated in the Iranian context (Nilforooshan & Salimi, 2016; Salimi et al., 2021).

Instruments

Assimilative and Accommodative Coping Strategies

The Assimilation and Accommodation Scales (Haratsis et al., 2015a) were used to know about assimilative and accommodative coping strategies. The Persian versions of the Assimilation and Accommodation Scales (Salimi et al., 2021) include 18 items. Each scale comprises nine items with a 5-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). Salimi et al. (2021) approved the two-factor structure of the Persian versions of Assimilation and Accommodation Scales through confirmatory factor analysis. They reported acceptable reliability indexes for the Persian versions of the assimilation (α = 0.88) and Accommodation (α = 0.89) Scales.

Career Goal Engagement

Selective Primary Control Subscale of the Optimization in Primary and Secondary Control Scale (Haase et al., 2008) adapted for career goals (Haratsis et al., 2015b) was utilized to measure individuals’ engagement in career goals. The scale includes eight items with a 5-point Likert scale (1 = strongly disagree, 5 = strongly agree). Haratsis et al. (2015b) reported acceptable internal consistency (α = 0.90).

Career Adaptability

Career Adapt-abilities Scale (CAAS) (Savickas & Porfeli, 2012), which contains 24 items, was used to measure career adaptability. This scale comprises four dimensions: concern, control, curiosity, and confidence. Each dimension includes six items. Participants rate the items using a 5-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (not strong) to 5 (strongest). The Persian version of CAAS was confirmed by Nilforooshan and Salimi (2016). Cronbach’s alpha coefficient for the Persian version was .92 for the total score, .71 for concern, .79 for control, .84 for curiosity, and .86 for confidence (Nilforooshan & Salimi, 2016).

Satisfaction With Career Progress

The modified version of the Career Satisfaction Scale (Greenhaus et al., 1990) by Haratsis et al. (2016) for young people was used to measure individuals’ satisfaction with their career progress. This scale assesses participants’ satisfaction with career progress and includes five statements. The responses are rated on a 5-point Likert-type scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). Haratsis et al. (2016) reported its high internal consistency (α = 0.92).

Results

Measurement Model Evaluation

The means, standard deviations, Cronbach’s alpha, composite reliability (CR), average variance extracted (AVE), and correlations between measures are presented in Table 1. At first, confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) was conducted by AMOS 23 to test the measurement models of the Persian version of the career satisfaction and career goal engagement measures. For Career Satisfaction Scale, a single-factorial model in which the five items were considered as observed variables was considered. For Career Goal Engagement Scale, a single-factorial model with eight observed variables was taken. Indices of the Chi-square over degrees-of-freedom (χ²/df), Tucker–Lewis Index (TLI), the Comparative Fit Index (CFI), and the Root Mean Square Error of Approximation (RMSEA) were used for testing the model fit (Hu & Bentler, 1999). According to Schermelleh-Engel et al. (2003), the results of CFA showed the data fitted well in the measurement model of career goal engagement (χ²/df = 1.41, TLI = 0.99, CFI = 0.99, RMSEA = 0.03 [95% CI = 0.00, 0.06]). Also, the results of CFA for the measurement model of career satisfaction showed an acceptable fit to the data (χ²/df = 2.16, TLI = 0.98, CFI = 0.99, RMSEA = 0.06 [95% CI = 0.00, 0.14]). Standardized regression weights ranged between 0.4 and 0.9 (p < .001) for Career Satisfaction Scale and 0.60 to 0 .89 (p < .001) for Career Goal Engagement Scale. The fourth item of career satisfaction scale (0.4) was eliminated due to its low factor loading. The results of CFA after removing fourth item showed an acceptable fit of the measurement model of career satisfaction to the data (χ²/df = 2.48, TLI = 0.98, CFI = 0.99, RMSEA = 0.06 [95% CI = 0.00, 0.14]). Standardized regression weights ranged between 0.74 and 0.89 (p < .001).

Table 1.

Descriptive Statistics, Cronbach’s Alpha, Composite Reliability, Average Variance Extracted, and Correlations Among Variables (n = 319).

Measure	M	SD	α	1	2	3	4	5	Average Variance Extracted	Composite Reliability
1. Assimilative coping	4.46	0.59	0.91	1					0.57	0.92
2. Accommodative coping	3.46	1.01	0.92	−0.10	1				0.54	0.92
3. Career adaptability	3.92	0.58	0.93	0.24^***	0.32^***	1			0.67	0.89
4. Career goal engagement	4.10	0.84	0.94	0.35^***	−0.24^***	0.19^***	1		0.65	0.94
5. Career satisfaction	3.58	0.92	0.84	0.15^**	0.23^***	0.46^***	0.12^*	1	0.67	0.91

Note. *p < .05, **p < .01, ***p < .001

Then, CFA was conducted to ensure the acceptability of the measurement model and discriminant validity. Four observed variables, including concern, control, curiosity, and confidence, were considered in the factor structure of career adaptability. Assimilative and accommodative coping strategies were accounted as a two first-order factor structure in which nine items, as observed variables, loaded onto each factor. The factor structure of career satisfaction and career goal engagement was mentioned above. Then, the structural correlations among the constructs of the five higher-order factors were tested to determine discriminant validity. The result of CFA showed acceptable fit (χ² = 1047.119, df = 529, χ²/df = 1.97, TLI = 0.93, CFI = 0.93, RMSEA = 0.055; 90% CI = [0.051, 0.06]). Fornell–Larcker criterion was used to check the discriminant validity (Fornell & Larcker, 1981). Cronbach’s alpha and CR values (Table 1) are higher than 0.84 and within an acceptable range. Besides, the AVE values of convergent validity were higher than 0.50, which was acceptable. Finally, the Fornell–Larcker criterion (Table 2) indicated that the square root of AVE for each construct was higher than its correlation with other constructs in the model. Thus, the discriminant validity was confirmed.

Table 2.

Discriminant Validity (Fornell–Larcker).

Constructs	Assimilative Resources	Accommodative Resources	Adaptability	Goal Engagement	Career Satisfaction
Assimilative resources	0.75
Accommodative resources	−0.10	0.73
Adaptability	0.27***	0.35***	0.81
Goal engagement	0.36***	−0.26***	0.20**	0.80
Career progress satisfaction	0.18***	0.26***	0.52***	0.12*	0.81

Note. *p < .05, **p < .01, ***p < .001

Structural Model

The mediation model developed based on the previous empirical studies, and the career adaptation model assumed that career adaptability and career goal engagement mediate the relationship between adaptivity (i.e., assimilative and accommodative coping strategies) and adaptation result (i.e., career satisfaction) (Figure 1). Structural equation modeling (SEM), using the bootstrap approach with 2000 resamples, was run by Amos 23.

The results indicated that the model acceptably fitted the data (χ² = 935.996, df = 501, χ²/df = 1.86, TLI = 0.93, CFI = 0.94, RMSEA = 0.052 [95% CI = 0.047, 0.057]). The appropriacy of the sample size for SEM)was confirmed by Hoelter’s index (value of 197 (p ≤ .01) and 189 (p ≤ .05). As shown in Table 3, the total relationships of assimilative and accommodative coping strategies with career satisfaction were significant (p ≤ .001). In comparison, the direct relationships of assimilative and accommodative coping strategies with career satisfaction were not significant. On the other hand, their indirect relationships with career satisfaction through career adaptability and career goal engagement were significant (p ≤ .01). Therefore, adaptability and adapting fully mediated the pathway from adaptivity to adaptation. Investigating the role of adaptability in the relationship between adaptivity (i.e., assimilative and accommodative coping strategies) and adapting (i.e., career goal engagement) revealed a significant total relationship (p ≤ .001). Besides, the direct path of assimilative and accommodative coping strategies to career goal engagement was significant (p ≤ .001). In addition, the indirect path of adaptivity (i.e., assimilative and accommodative coping strategies) to adapting via adaptability was significant (p ≤ .01). Therefore, the relationship between adaptivity and adapting was partially mediated by adaptability. Examining the mediating role of adapting in the relationship between adaptability and adaptation revealed the significant total relationship between adaptability and adaptation (p ≤ .001). There was also a significant direct relationship between adaptability and career satisfaction (p ≤ .001), but the indirect path of adaptability to adaptation via adapting was not significant. Therefore, adapting did not mediate the relationship between adaptability and adaptation. Furthermore, as shown in Figure 1, the standardized path coefficient of adapting to adaptation was close to zero. Therefore, another mediation model in which career adaptability was the only mediator between adaptivity and adaptation (Figure 2) seemed to warrant close examination. The results indicated that the model acceptably fitted the data (χ² = 489.169, df = 279, χ²/df = 1.75, TLI = 0.96, CFI = 0.95, RMSEA = 0.05 [95% CI = 0.04, 0.05]). As shown in the last row of Table 2, the total relationships of assimilative and accommodative coping strategies with career satisfaction were significant (p ≤ .001). In comparison, the direct pathway of assimilative and accommodative coping strategies to career satisfaction was not significant. On the other hand, their indirect relationships with career satisfaction through career adaptability were significant (p ≤ .001). Therefore, career adaptability is the main mediator in the relationship between adaptivity and adaptation.

Table 3.

Total, Direct, and Indirect Relationships in the Hypothesized Mediation Model.

Independent Variable	Mediator Variables	Dependent Variable	Standardized Total EffectBse [ 95% CI]	Standardized Indirect EffectBse [ 95% CI]	Standardized Direct EffectBse [95% CI]	Mediation Result
Assimilative coping	Adaptability and career goal engagement	Career satisfaction	0.22***0.06 [0.11, 0.31]	0.16**0.05 [0.08, 0.25]	0.060.05 [−0.05, 0.15]	Full mediation
Accommodative coping	Adaptability and career goal engagement	Career satisfaction	0.28***0.06 [0.17, 0.39]	0.19**0.05 [0.10, 0.27]	0.090.06 [−0.02, 0.20]	Full mediation
Assimilative coping	Adaptability	Career goal engagement	0.34***0.076 [0.021, 0.46]	0.07**0.026 [0.030, 0.11]	0.27***0.07 [0.16, 0.39]	Weak partial mediation
Accommodative coping	Adaptability	Career goal engagement	−0.23***0.055 [−0.032, −0.3]	0.09**0.034 [0.033, 0.14]	−0.33***0.06 [−0.41, −0.22	Weak partial mediation
Adaptability	Career goal engagement	Career satisfaction	0.47***0.06 [0.23, 0.48]	0.010.015 [−0.017, 0.033]	0.46***0.06 [0.35, 0.57]	Direct relation
Assimilative coping	Adaptability	Career satisfaction	0.21***0.06 [0.11, 0.31]	0.14***0.04 [0.07, 0.23]	0.070.06 [−0.03, 0.15]	Full mediation
Accommodative coping	Adaptability	Career satisfaction	0.28***0.06 [0.17, 0.38]	0.18***0.04 [0.11, 0.25]	0.050.071 [−0.004, 0.19]	Full mediation

Note. Bse = Bootstrap standard error. **p < .01, ***p < .001.

Discussion

This study investigated the relationships of adaptivity, adaptability, adapting, and adaptation indexes among individuals with visual impairment. The results showed that high assimilative coping leads to more career goal engagement, but high accommodative coping may decrease engaging goals. These findings are in line with previous studies (Haratsis et al., 2015a, 2015b). Also, finding the positive relationship among adaptivity, adaptability, and satisfaction in this study is similar to the finding reported by Tolentino et al. (2013). Moreover, the positive relationship between engagement and adaptability and also the positive association between engagement and satisfaction in this study were posited in previous studies (Nilforooshan & Salimi, 2016; Rossier et al., 2012; Wefald & Downey, 2009), as well. The examination of the serial multiple mediation models revealed that the indirect relationships between adaptivity and adaptation outcome were fully mediated by adaptability and adapting. This finding was predictable by the proposed chain in the career adaptation model (Nilforooshan, 2020; Savickas, 2013). As stated by Salimi et al. (2021), using assimilative efforts or giving up the goals and choosing alternative goals may be related to satisfaction among individuals with visual impairment. Modifying the environment or aspiration, in turn, leads to an assessment that reflects a balance between the inner needs and outer opportunities known as satisfaction (Savickas, 2013). As mentioned before, individuals with visual impairment face many external and internal obstacles in pursuing their goals (Donaldson, 2017; O’Mally & Antonelli, 2016; Papadopoulos et al., 2013). When they decide to pursue their career goals and use assimilative coping resources, the concern makes them hopeful, and therefore individuals behave in a planned manner. When, despite multiple obstacles, they succeed in changing their way by using accommodative resources, the concern assists them to be optimistic and follow new plans. Concern causes individuals to hope for the future (Savickas, 2013), which leads to positive perceptions about functional ability among individuals with visual impairment (Jackson et al., 1998). Hope probably can help individuals with visual impairment pay less attention to their impairment despite different obstacles. Also, TPG helps individuals with visual impairment to insist on pursuing goals. In this regard, hope may help individuals ensure that they can find an alternative. In the case of low assertiveness of individuals with visual impairment (O’Mally & Antonelli, 2016), if they use assimilative resources, career control helps them insist on their goals by promoting their assertiveness. If they have to accommodate, career control helps them consider themselves responsible individuals who control their lives. Using assimilative strategies needs curiosity to overcome difficulties such as job search, which is one of the obstacles reported by individuals with visual impairment (Donaldson, 2017). Considering the effect of visual impairment on diminishing self-efficacy (Brown & Barrett, 2011), career confidence can be considered as a necessary resource to encourage individuals with visual impairment to insist on their goals or change them, career confidence assists them to believe in themselves and be self-efficacious. Self-efficacy can convert the effect of assimilative and accommodative strategies and make individuals with visual impairment more satisfied (Salimi et al., 2021).

The partial mediation of career adaptability in the relation between adaptivity and adapting responses is consistent with studies by Nilforooshan and Salimi (2016). This finding reveals adaptivity is not sufficient for developing adapting behavior, and career adaptability may help transfer the effectiveness of adaptivity to adapting. It should be considered that career adaptability act as a weak mediator in this relationship. Also, the role of adapting in the relation of adaptability with adaptation was not supported. These findings may be related to the population of the current study. In some cases, individuals with visual impairment may at times impose constraints on physical activities (Barbosa Porcellis da Silva et al., 2018). Therefore, it is difficult for them to engage in goals that need physical activities. Concerning the unfavorable living conditions of these individuals in Iran, something more than career adaptability sources (ability), for example, environmental modification, is needed to turn adaptivity into career goal engagement.

In general, it should be considered adapting requires behaviors and beliefs that help people change circumstances (Savickas & Porfeli, 2012). Career goal engagement indicated an adapting behavior. Finding the direct relationship between adaptability and adaptation suggests that the adapting behavior of individuals with visual impairment may not be sufficient for transmitting the effects of adaptability on well-being since the transmission sometimes depends on adapting beliefs. This claim is supported by evidence suggesting that adapting beliefs mediated the relation between adaptability and adaptation among exceptional groups. For instance, Santilli et al. (2014) posited that the relationship between adaptability and life satisfaction is mediated by hope in workers with disabilities. Also, Ginevra et al. (2018) supported the mediating role of resiliency in the association between adaptability and well-being among parents who had children with disabilities. In addition, evidence suggested that many individuals with visual impairment could not have favorable rehabilitation in Iran (Omidmorad & Mohammadi, 2020). This limitation may hinder engaging in career goals.

Last but not least, the finding emphasized the key role of adaptability in the chain of career adaptation model. This result may be related to the fact that career adaptability provides the opportunity to learn for individuals with disabilities (Sefotho, 2014).

Theoretical and Practical Implications

The present study has important theoretical and practical implications. It is the first study that recruited individuals with visual impairment to assess the career adaptation model. The results supported this model and showed the generalizability of the career adaptation model to individuals with impairment. The findings of the current study have important practical implications for vocational rehabilitation counseling. For instance, the findings highlighted the important role of adaptability in converting adaptivity to career satisfaction. This finding suggests that vocational rehabilitation programs that focus on the development of counselees’ career adaptability might empower special populations to overcome barriers and reach the goal that leads to career satisfaction. Career counselors and career coaches who work with individuals with visual impairment could improve the perception of current career achievement through working on their self-regulation recourses and encouraging them to engage in career goals. It seems the organizations that employ individuals with visual impairment should include the program to reinforce career adaptability if they want to have more satisfied employees. Also, the non-governmental organizations that support individuals with visual impairment should consider career adaptability interventions to enhance their preparedness. The results of this study can add to the growing body of research pointing out that career adaptation factors can empower vocational rehabilitation counseling clients and open up new opportunities for postmodern vocational rehabilitation counseling.

Limitation and Future Directions

The current research was conducted on young Iranian individuals with visual impairment. It is necessary to examine individuals with other disabilities and also other ages. In addition, since finding individuals with visual impairment to participate was not easy, the small sample size is one of the limitations. Besides, the data were collected from individuals referred to the university centers for visual impairments, and the majority of them were highly educated. However, it was attempted to choose individuals with work experience. In addition, individuals with visual impairment are provided with limited facilities in Iran. For example, based on optimistic estimation, about one-fifth of individuals with visual impairment received favorable rehabilitation in Iran (Omidmorad & Mohammadi, 2020). So, it is essential to examine this model among individuals with disabilities in developed countries to explore how cultures and environments with more favorable rehabilitation may affect the pathways in the career adaptation model.

Footnotes

Acknowledgments

We would like to thank all blind and low vision individuals that kindly participated in this study.

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Funding

The author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Ethical Approval

All procedures performed in studies involving human participants were in accordance with the ethical standards of the institutional and/or national research committee and with the 1964 Helsinki declaration and its later amendments or comparable ethical standards.

ORCID iD

Parisa Nilforooshan

Author Biographies

Samaneh Salimi finished her PhD in Career Counseling at University of Isfahan, Iran in 2020. She is interested in empowering minority groups (such as individuals with disability, and immigrants students) using career counseling. She has recently become interested in applying concepts of Jung Psychology in career counseling context. Her research interests are Career Adaptation Model, Goal-related variables, and empowerment. The most important her hobbies are studying, watching films, photography and also painting.

Parisa Nilforooshan is an associate professor in the Department of Counseling, Faculty of Education and Psychology, University of Isfahan. She has finished her PhD in Counseling at University of Isfahan, Iran. She started her work at the University of Isfahan since 2012. Since 2018, she is appointed as the head of the Department of Counseling of the Faculty of Education and Psychology. Her main interest is career counseling, especially life designing paradigm in this area. Her research interests lie primarily in the area of mainly focused on Career adaptation Model, Student Employability, Career Adaptability, Career Development, Career Calling and Work Hope. The most important her hobby is reading books.

Ahmad Sadeghi is an associate professor in the Department of Counseling, Faculty of education and Psychology, University of Isfahan. He has finished his PhD in Career Counseling at University of Isfahan in 2011 and has worked as a lecturer in the department of counseling in 2013. Since 2016, He is appointed as the director of the Student Counseling Center of the University of Isfahan and made efforts to promote the mental health of students. His main research interests are career development, career assessment, and academic advising. The most important his hobby is studying.

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