Self and Reality: An Upaniṣadic View

Introduction

The Bṛhadāraṇyaka Upaniṣad is the greatest and the bulkiest of the Upaniṣads. Its main goal is to reveal true knowledge. Bṛhadāraṇyaka Upaniṣad is centred on the concept related to our experience. It is the experience of the entire cosmos participating in one’s experience. And thus, leads to the ‘true knowledge’. The notion of ‘true knowledge’ has been contested in different texts differently. This article attempts to investigate the idea of truth or true knowledge and reality in the context of Bṛhadāraṇyaka Upaniṣad. There are 108 Upaniṣad in total; every Upaniṣad focuses on the concept of true knowledge as the identity of Self with Brahman. However, the method of reaching that truth is different in different Upaniṣads. The notion of truth is widely discussed in various Upanishads, including the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad where truth or true knowledge of self is called the means to Brahman, as well as Brahman itself, Sat (Being, or true self); in the Chāndogya Upaniṣad, this Self or Brahman is material as well as the efficient cause of the Universe; in the Svetasvatara Upanishad, Brahman is called, Truth (सत्य), Auspiciousness (शिवमं), and the Beautiful One (सुंदर); in the Taittiriya Upanishad, Brahman is called Truth (सत्य), knowledge (ज्ञान), and infinite (अनंत); in the Mundaka Upanishad, Brahman is the inner self, eternal truth, and conscious; in Mandukya Upanisad, Brahman is the Self or Ātman which is infinite and pure consciousness; and such.

In the Bṛhadāraṇyaka Upaniṣad, the underlining idea is to grasp an all-pervasive, eternal, and intelligent principle underlying the diversity of the universe. Its theme constitutes of illimitable, all-embracing, absolute, self-luminous, blissful reality, that is, the identity of Ātman with Brahman. Bṛhadāraṇyaka Upaniṣad is an Upaniṣad of the sacrificial Yajur Veda. Its way to liberation lies through sacrifice. This great Upaniṣad consists of three kāṇḍas: Madhu kāṇḍa, yājn˜avalkya kāṇḍa or muni kāṇḍa, and third the khila kāṇḍa. Its philosophy is focused toward the enlightenment or proliferation of the mind. This enlightenment can be achieved only through the Self as the source which is both Constitutive as well as Regulative source. According to the Bṛhadāraṇyaka Upaniṣad, there are three factors or methods to attain the knowledge of self that is Upades̀a (उपदेश), Upapatti (उपपत्ति) and Upāsanā (उपासना).

Upades̀a is the main teaching and the doctrinal thesis, which is discussed in the Madhu kāṇḍa, the first part of Bṛhadāraṇyaka Upaniṣad; Upapatti, being the rational discourse embodies the logical or dialectic argument and explanation showing the accuracy of the Upades̀a, is conveyed in yājn˜avalkya kāṇḍa; and lastly, in khila kāṇḍa, Upāsanā is discussed as the mode of meditation and contemplation to achieve the knowledge of Self. The Bṛhadāraṇyaka Upaniṣad intimates that the knowledge of self is the attainment of it, and this knowledge of self or Ātman can only be attained by removing or negating the attributes superimposed on it. It exhibits that in Bṛhadāraṇyaka Upaniṣad Chapter I, Section IV, the knowledge of self is the ultimate and ‘when the self is attained, everything is automatically attained’ (Sankaracharya, 2011). In a way, it conveys the knowledge or attainment of the Self is the Ultimate Reality or Brahman which is no other than the inward self of the individual.

The Bṛhadāraṇyaka Upaniṣad is the philosophical dialogue between Yājn˜avalkya and Maitreyi, and also between Yājn˜avalkya and Gārgī, the lady philosopher. Yājn˜avalkya conveyed to his wife Maitreyi the greatest truth that the Ātman is the ultimate object of all forms of love and can be only known or understood as eternal bliss. Moreover, Ātman or Self or Brahman is the means to immortality. ‘This self is dearer than a son, dearer than wealth, dearer than everything else, and is innermost’ (Madhavananda, 2011, p. 97). Yājn˜avalkya conveyed that nothing in this world is dear for its own sake, but for the sake of the Self. The same is true for all other things. It means that the Self which is bliss by its very nature is primary and that the knowledge of the self is the means to immortality. And this knowledge can be obtained ‘…through the duly regulated scheme of śravaṇa (श्रवण), manana (मनन), and nididhyāsana (निदिद्धयासन)—knowing the truth from the Upaniṣad, investigating and discussing it, and constant contemplation upon it’ (Madhavananda, 2011, Introduction xv). Upon meditation, the ignorance of a man concerning the universe and the self can be removed and one can proceed to inculcate the knowledge of Brahman.

Central Theme

Several different messages of ontology are conveyed in the Bṛhadāraṇyaka Upaniṣad. However, the authority and aims of this Upaniṣad are embodied in the soul-elevating abhyāroha-mantra (अभ्यारोह मंत्र)—‘From evil lead me to good. From darkness lead me to light. From death lead me to immortality’ (असतो मा सद्गमय । तमसो मा ज्योतिर्गमय । मृत्योर्मामृतं गमयेति ।) These hymns are also called Pavamānas. The Śruti prescribes that the repetition of this mantrās or silent chanting of mantrās makes one blessed with knowledge and further elevates to the level of divinity.

The Upaniṣads are based upon the teachings of the Vedas. And the entire teaching of the Vedas is devoted to unfolding the means of attaining what is good and avoiding what is evil as the two ends of life. The distinction between good and evil can only be understood through the knowledge of self. This teaching which emphasizes on the existence, knowledge and nature of self cannot be known through perception or inference, but only through the authority of the Śruti text. It is evident that everyone in the universe seeks to attain what is good and avoid what is bad. However, according to Bṛhadāraṇyaka Upaniṣad, ‘unless a person is aware of the existence of the self in a future life, he will not be induced to attain what is good and avoid what is evil in that life’ (Madhavananda, 2011, [I.i.] p. 1). So, the attainment of good and avoidance of evil becomes the higher goal for one’s life. Nevertheless, the concept of good and evil requires further description to be understood.

Yet, the basic concept of the entire worldview is that it is dependent on human need or human necessity, that is, Desire. Human being desires to possess, acquire, and conquer something which he does not have. Desire influences the attainment of good and avoidance of evil. This potential to desire is not just in human beings but in all living beings. However, this potential is an artefact of Consciousness. The Bṛhadāraṇyaka Upaniṣad beautifully portrays the manifestation of the universe out of Self, which is identical to Brahman, through consciousness. Consciousness in general has awareness and feeling which is sensuous as well as intellectual. As this universe has manifested out of Brahman, there is consciousness in everything and there come the two Worlds: Internal World and External World. Nevertheless, all these diverse forms of consciousness in the universe can be known only when they participate in us. Human beings as sentient and rational beings can internalize external things through sense and consciousness, and thus have consciousness higher than other beings.

Good and Evil

Following the text of Bṛhadāraṇyaka Upaniṣad, the knowledge of self-answers all the unanswered dilemmas. Only through this self-knowledge, one can know what is good and what is evil to attain and avoid, respectively. The desire for attachment is the greater evil. Evil, as defined by Bṛhadāraṇyaka Upaniṣad, is to speak something which is forbidden by scriptures, even against one’s wish. Evil is, smelling something which is forbidden by scriptures, seeing something that is forbidden by scriptures, hearing something that is forbidden by scriptures, thinking something which is forbidden by scriptures, or when one thinks improper things. Erroneous notions lead to evil. Death is the greatest evil, suffering which is born out of desire. And this desire to possess something keeps or imposes the veil of ignorance. Ignorance regarding the self is the cause of this desire which leads man to attain the good and avoid the evil. He who is far from evil or death is called dūr. Śruti says, ‘One becomes good through good work and evil through evil work’.

Evil comes to reside in holiness and ultimately, this evil or suffering leads a man towards attaining the good. According to the Vedic concept, all sorts of evil or suffering are within us which motivate us towards good. Evil is the suffering which promotes passion. The person or sufferer himself remains unaware of his own welfare because he is not enlightened. But the very existence itself brings suffering with it. Human beings as clung to passion or desire see the world in a way that is constituted by the Self. Passion at the primary stage is flexible and self-directed, which implies that all sensuous pleasures are confined to a lower value as all the material objects are self-directed. Then, it gets transcended and becomes conditioned with dispassion. And finally, it reaches compassion which is good and also deconditioned. Thus, only the transformation of human conduct can lead evil or suffering to Good or compassion.

Self, to attain good, ascends to a higher level through action, then again descend to the level of dispassion. And then at last, with spiritual and mystical knowledge transcend to the highest level of good. Self, being the source as well as the object to be mediated upon is identical to this manifestation of the universe. Only the knowledge of the Identity of the Individual, Self and Brahman can help in eradicating the cause of the ignorance which is masked by the World. Existence brings suffering. The primary task is to maintain harmony to address the question of good and evil which was addressed through Pavamānas Mantrā in Chapter 1, Section 3 of the Bṛhadāraṇyaka Upaniṣad.

Pavamānas Mantrā

‘From evil lead me to good. From darkness lead me to light. From death lead me to immortality’. (असतो मा सद्गमय । तमसो मा ज्योतिर्गमय । मृत्योर्मामृतं गमयेति ।) The meaning of these mantras is hidden in mystery, so the Brāhmaṇa itself explains that meaning: ‘From evil lead me to good’ it means that Evil is Death. Whatever man does or thinks is because of natural actions and thoughts. It is evil because it degrades or leads a man down to an exceedingly degraded state of being. Evil is the bondage of the phenomenon world, which is unreal. Good, on the other hand, is immortality; good is the actions and thoughts injuncted by scriptures. These actions and thoughts can lead a man to divinity or immortality. This mantra is the recitation by Self who chant that ‘from evil actions and ignorance lead me to good and help me to identify myself, leading to immortality’. Thus, the first mantra is a prayer for the transformation of one from ignorance to the endeavour for human goal, that is, to attain the means of realization.

The second prayer is a prayer for transcending one’s state of being. ‘From darkness lead me to the light’—meaning that ‘The darkness is the death. All ignorance is darkness because it conceals the real. And that is death, that ignorance because it leads to it. Light is immortality, light the opposite of darkness, being of the nature of divinity’. It discloses that only knowledge can eliminate the darkness of ignorance which obscure our mind, taking oneself to light because it reveals the truth, and the truth is immortality because it dies away. This prayer says that ‘Make me immortal, make me realize the divinity and the liberation. And this liberation can be attained only through the knowledge of the identity of Self with Brahman’.

The latter prayer, ‘From death lead me to immortality’ is very evident. There is nothing obscure in this third mantra; it simply says, ‘Make me immortal’. This mantrā is the prayer for leading me from the fear of death to immortality through the knowledge of the immortal self. This immortal self is the cause of all the manifestations in the universe, which ultimately is one without a second. Realization of this Self is pure bliss, pure consciousness and pure existence.

However, we, human beings, more often are leading life’s journey toward the knowledge to understand what is self and to know what we misunderstood as ‘I’ is not the true meaning of self.

Interaction of Consciousness

As discussed in the above paragraphs, human beings internalize and interact with external things through sense and consciousness and make it conscious. The universe one experience participates in our consciousness to come into existence. It has been made explicit through various verses in Chapter 1 of the Bṛhadāraṇyaka Upaniṣad that without consciousness the physical, external or material world cannot come into being. According to Bṛhadāraṇyaka Upaniṣad, the universe is both differentiated and undifferentiated to indicate the identity of the self and not-self. This universe consists of the Gross world (earth, water and fire) and the subtle world (air and ether) and their essence. Thus, constitutes the interaction between the external world and the internal world. While talking about the interaction between the external world (physical world) and the internal world (mental world), consciousness plays a vital role. This creates the demarcation of the Self and the Others (includes everything). Through consciousness, others participate in the self either in the form of physical or emotional elements. Self as a conscious being is calm, but later, the wave either in external form or in internal form shakes the consciousness by participating in it. Analogously, the river is calm, but when we throw a stone, river water gets waves as a product of external form. On the other hand, when some fish floating on the top of the river shakes the calmness of the river, it becomes the product of internal form.

Any form of consciousness outside the Self is not consciousness. Only when external things through our senses participate in us is becoming conscious. For instance, an external object such as a tree can be seen by the eyes (visual sense); further, reflected by the mind, and become conscious. The whole diversity of the universe participates in us and gets internalized and becomes Unity. Then, this unity in mind through consciousness reflects and gets diverse as a different external object. External things participate in us in momentary form but seem in continuous form. Here, consciousness plays the role of intellect or mind which categorizes or distinguishes between the continuant and the particular. Yet, all are within the domain of consciousness. This proves that in this Self, only everything participates and the Self alone is to be meditated upon for the ultimate knowledge.

Transformation of anything passes through consciousness. Consciousness moves from egoistic self to altruistic self. Self develops the Worldview. This concept suggests that there are pluralities, but plurality to be explained needs interdependence. As the bees make the honey and the honey supports the bees, the cosmic forces support the individual beings and individual beings support the existence of cosmic forces. This entails the theory of mutual interdependence. ‘We are not able to see that One as it is. We see the One, but only as functioning in the many’ (Ranganathananda, 2008).

To this Śruti says, ‘One who sacrifices to the self is better than one who sacrifices to the gods’ (Madhavananda, 2011, [I.i.] p. 3). According to the Bṛhadāraṇyaka Upaniṣad, knowledge of the nature of Self is the ultimate knowledge. The nature of self is non-dual with Brahman; thereby the identity of self (Ātman) with Brahman becomes the liberation for an individual self. This liberation, as per the Śruti text, can be achieved either through meditation or through rites. ‘Of all the rites the greatest is the horse sacrifice, for it leads to identity with Hiraṇyagarbha in his collective and individual aspects’(Madhavananda, 2011, [I.i.] p. 4). And meditation upon self can lead to ultimate bliss. However, this self remains under the veil of ignorance.

Nature of Ātman or Brahman

Ātman which is said to be non-dual or identical to Brahman, is the basic unity of universal diversity. Ātman is real. According to the Upaniṣadic view, real is something which exists in all three dimensions of time. Ātman or Brahman, being beyond space and time, exists even in past, present and future and thus evidently is Real. The Self (Ātman) is immanent in all the beings diversified in the universe. Self (Ātman) is a seer, hearer, thinker; he breathes in and breathes out, he is all-pervasive. Self alone is to be meditated and reflected upon, by the knowledge of which everything is known. Ātman or Brahman is the material, efficient as well as final cause of everything in the universe. Self is nameless, formless and inexplicable. Ātman or Brahman is pure consciousness, pure bliss and pure knowledge. Ātman is the inner dweller, inner controller and the immortal. As Śruti says, ‘He who inhabits the earth, but is within it, whom the earth does not know, whose body is the earth, and who controls the earth from within, is the Internal Ruler, your own immortal Self’ (Madhavananda, 2011, [III.vii.3] p. 349).

As narrated in Bṛhadāraṇyaka Upaniṣad, Self or Ātman or Brahman is incomprehensible, unconditioned and indescribable. However, the world and its nature are unreal. As the world was non-existent in the beginning and also ceases to be with dissolution, it is something temporary and mundane. This multiformity or diversity in the world is just the creation of ignorance which is superimposed on the Self. All the worldly objects and existing diversity are unreal as it does not exist at all the tree times—past, present and future. Thereby, the only truth, real or ultimate thing is the Self or Ātman and its knowledge, the ultimate knowledge.

Neti–Neti: Attributes of Brahman

As described by Yājn˜avalkya, Ātman is incomprehensible and indescribable. We know about the Ātman by negating the attributes superimposed on it. There is no such quality attributed to Ātman. However, with the diversity of the universe, different qualities have been superimposed by the ignorance or māyā. Māyā is an indivisible force of Ātman or Brahman which produces the diversity of the non-dual nature of reality. So, if Yājn˜avalkya would describe the Ātman as something, it would make a fallacy as he pronounced Ātman as inexplicable. Thus, Yājn˜avalkya took the negative expression to glorify the Self or Ātman by using neti neti or ‘not this, not this’. Yājn˜avalkya negated every quality superimposed on Ātman at the empirical level. This theory of neti neti is also very prevalent in Buddhist philosophy.

Manifestation of Universe

To reveal the knowledge of the Ultimate Self, the Bṛhadāraṇyaka Upaniṣad opens the section with the origin of the Universe and the existing plurality, further moved to edify that this plurality is because of desire and ignorance, thus transcending all the desire leads to liberation. To an extent, Bṛhadāraṇyaka Upaniṣad is similar to Nasadiya Sukta for the origination of this Universe. It says that ‘There was nothing whatsoever here in the beginning’ (Madhavananda, 2011, [I.ii.1] p. 11). The universe was covered with only death. In Bṛhadāraṇyaka Upaniṣad, death is equated with Hiraṇyagarbha or Prajāpati, who desired to have a mind and thereby the manifestation of the universe started. Before the manifestation of the mind, there was nothing differentiated between name and form in the universe. With mind, Prajāpati produced water, out of which the embryonic state of the universe came. Further, when Death or Hiraṇyagarbha or Prajāpati became tired and exhausted, out of his essence, Virāj was born. Virāj, then, differentiated or divided himself into body and organ with the attributes of the gross and subtle body as the desire of having a second form or body. Later, on reflecting on the Vedas, Virāj desired to have a mind with the union of speech. With Mind and Speech, projection of the unmanifested world came into existence. Simultaneously, the whole universe came into existence through desire. From the one, the many (universe) came, and unto the one, the many will return (universe will dissolve).

Desire: The Source

Death is desire. Desire is the creator of time and created by the mind. Death as the desire for something is hunger. Death as hunger is a conditioned desire. ‘Death creates the universe through the unconscious contemplation of the unmanifest threefold speech…. Death is the cause of the universe’. It is, then, implicit about Death that He differentiated or divided himself, and when the ceremony (creation of the universe) gets over, he again becomes one. That means Brahman is the one and the only cause as well as the end of the universe. The whole universe is the manifestation of Brahman which is non-different from the Universe itself. However, when Brahman gets differentiated, the diversity is grasped through three things—name, form and action. These are the three forms which altogether cover the reality with ignorance. Ignorance has been superimposed (अध्यारोप अपवाद) on the self as different names, forms and actions.

Name and Form

Self, being the only truth diversify in the world as many. It differentiates itself into different things with a particular name and particular form. Despite being one, the difference between things is only because of nāma and rūpa, name and form. ‘The substance is the same, but names and forms make them different. From a piece of gold, a goldsmith makes various ornaments. What makes the difference between them (name and form)?’ (Ranganathananda, 2008, p. 42). Ātman is the only reality but it is hidden behind or veiled by names and forms. This diverse universe consists of three things: name, form and action.

All that we see or perceive is nothing but name, form and action. In the contemporary world, these names and forms are called relativity. Names and forms exhibit the interconnectedness and relativity. And as preached, ‘Whatever has a name and a form is subject to mortality.’ (Ranganathananda, 2008, p. 118). These together constitute the subject matter of ordinary knowledge or aparā-vidyā. However, the extraordinary or ultimate knowledge (parā-vidya) leads to immortality and reveals the truth.

Later in Bṛhadāraṇyaka Upaniṣad, names and forms are called true, but only relatively true. Whatever is perceived in the world is differentiated as names and forms are relatively true, not absolutely. As the empirical world cannot be denied, its relativity and knowledge become ordinary knowledge. Nevertheless, the truth of all truth lies beyond multiformity and diversity. The truth of the truth is nameless and formless.

Upanisadic Principle

Alike the Bṛhadāraṇyaka Upaniṣad, the Chāndogya Upaniṣad is also focused on revealing the true nature of the self which is the ultimate knowledge. Chāndogya Upaniṣad defines Self as that by which one can hear what cannot be heard; by which one can perceive what cannot be perceived; by which one can know all that is made of clay, of gold, of iron or of Universe. This Self or Brahman is material as well as the efficient cause of the Universe. And Death can destroy the gross body, not the subtle body. Self-being the conscious being is a subtle body. Thus, this knowledge of Self or Self-knowledge (आत्मविद्या) is the chief of all that knowledge, for it leads to immortality.

Creation of Man and Woman as Equals

According to the Bṛhadāraṇyaka Upaniṣad, after the manifestation of the universe, Virāj in this relative world was not happy or satisfied. ‘To remove that dissatisfaction, he desired a mate…’ who can be ‘…able to take away that dissatisfaction, i.e., a wife’ (Ranganathananda, 2008, p. 69). And thereupon, he divided himself into two halves as a man and a woman. Both were created such as one incomplete without the other like the two halves of a split pea. With the union of the Virāj with his wife, humans were born. In the Upaniṣadic view, man and woman are created equal and there is no hierarchy but harmony.

In contrast with this view, the old biblical teaching advocates that ‘God created Adam, and when Adam was asleep, God took a rib of his and created Eve out of it’ (Ranganathananda, 2005). This entails that ‘Woman is only a rib of man, and that too dispensable rib! After removing that rib, man did not become less’. Therefore, this teaching creates a hierarchy in the world where men have been given a higher status. However, the great teaching of Bṛhadāraṇyaka Upaniṣad inspires society with the idea of equality of man and woman, not superior or inferior to other. Because ‘the nature of human beings as the Ātman. It is beyond sex differentiation. The Ātman has no sex. The idea of masculine and feminine is only in the body and not in the atman (Ranganathananda, 2008, p. 38). Bṛhadāraṇyaka Upaniṣad promotes non-sectarian views and equality without any limiting adjunct.

Despite these high teachings regarding equal treatment, our society has not succeeded in the equality of women as equals. We remain unaware of the fact that the unchanging reality behind man and woman or this changing universe is only Self or Ātman or Brahman.

Relevance in the Contemporary World

According to Bṛhadāraṇyaka Upaniṣad, there is a pattern for everything. And this happiness comes out of suffering. To make oneself free from suffering, one has to dis-condition one’s thoughts. There should be peace and harmony in mind and our action. As the entire cosmic experience participates in the individual system for harmony, harmony becomes the highest fundamental value. Self is inclusive of all. Thus, when we relate ourselves with others, we relate it ethically. This way narrow self-diversify, and brings a passion for pleasure which later transforms and develops and becomes metaphysical.

Today, the world sees an enormous number of evil activities and suffering; that is the greatest threat to security and good. As misery is due to contact of self with the mind (which desires, creates attachments, and differentiates between different forms of self), it makes the self a thing which has parts, transitory and changeful. But the Self cannot have any transitory attributes like misery or happiness. Happiness or misery is just the object of perception and they cannot affect the self. Real happiness is knowledge and emancipation. In the modern world, people are unaware of their well-being. The sense of desire to possess something which is not one’s leads to agony and hatred. This whole universe and its manifestations are just the gifts to self. When the world dissolves, this diversity ceases to be; and what remains is immortality. And to this, immortality is what we all need to seek through the knowledge of the identity of Self and Brahman.

‘The Self is not the individual self-identified through the mind–sense–body complex in our daily life’ (Balasubramanian, 2003). Instead, it is the universal self, the sole reality, identical to Brahman. The knowledge of the Self leads to liberation or cessation of ignorance because when the self is known, the non-self-die out. With the cessation of the non-self that was created by mind, the discrimination and distinction between one and another, mine and theirs, us and them fades, leading one to have a harmonious relationship in the world with everything living or lifeless.