Children as Environmental Stewards: Assessing Children’s Stewardship Competence Development from a Transformative Learning Intervention

Study Context

Data Collection

We applied a case study approach (Peel, 2020) to gain in-depth knowledge of the EE programme in the schools of Bududa district. Two primary schools (Namaitsu and Bumayoka) were purposely selected for triangulation purposes as cases of schools, out of the 12 schools, that were implementing the programme. The selected schools were easy to get to (Stake, 1995) and had experience in fully implementing the programme. Within these schools, study participants (pupils) were EC members. The school administration provided verbal and written proxy consent for pupils’ participation in the study. Baseline data were collected in 2022, before EE programme implementation to establish pupils’ existing stewardship competence attributes. After a year of implementation, endline data collection was undertaken from the same participants, to assess the development of competence attributes. In both schools, we aimed for an equal number of participants (aged between 9 and 14 years from primary 4–6) from each club. The schools are described as follows:

Namaitsu School had a total of 746 pupils (20 EC members). All 20 members participated in the baseline study. By the endline, 5 of 20 members had transferred to other schools, leaving 15 members to participate in the endline study. According to the endline study, the total club membership was 40 pupils.

Data Analysis

Data were collected in the English language although the local language (Lumasaba) was sometimes applied to enhance comprehension. All data collected in Lumasaba were translated and transcribed into English text for analysis. Survey data were collected using the ODK Collect application and exported to Excel for cleaning, analysis and presentation. Responses to the ordinal qualitative variables from the Likert scale were averaged using Excel and presented using figures. Data from interviews, FGDs and observation notes were analysed by developing a set of codes and subcodes. Thematic analysis (Peel, 2020) was applied using predefined codes based on competence dimensions and attributes defined in the environmental competence model (Roczen, 2011). These predefined codes include the three dimensions of ‘environmental knowledge’, ‘connection with nature’ and ‘ecological behaviour’ and the related attributes: (a) systems knowledge, (b) action-related knowledge, (c) effectiveness knowledge, (d) identity with nature, (e) appreciation for nature, (f), restoration attitude and (g) collaborative attitudes. Further, emerging competence attributes were considered and are presented in the ‘Results’ section. Results are presented narratively.

Environmental Knowledge Attributes

Here, pupils acquired stewardship competence attributes including systems knowledge, action-related knowledge and effectiveness knowledge as explained below.

Connection with Nature

In this dimension, pupils developed competence attributes such as identity with nature, appreciation for nature, collaborative attitudes and restoration attitudes as elaborated below.

Ecological Behaviour

This dimension comprised pupils’ behaviours aimed at watershed restoration, including restoration/conservation, collaborative and ethical actions. Literature review did not reveal these attributes; hence, this study illuminates them as ‘ecological behaviours’ that pupils engaged in. These behaviours were generally supported by the development of ‘environmental knowledge’ and ‘connection with nature’.

The Development of Children’s Competence Attributes

In this section, we discuss the development of pupils’ stewardship competence attributes, the interconnections therein and pedagogical features that influenced that development.

This study shows that most pupils had basic ‘environmental knowledge’ acquired through the formal curriculum, although by engaging in the EE programme, they acquired more ‘environmental knowledge’, especially systems knowledge. This knowledge makes a foundation for the systems thinking competence (Bianchi, 2020). However, this study revealed that only a few pupils developed effectiveness knowledge. ‘Environmental knowledge’ development was supported by learning content about the interconnected environment and the principle of integration (Kessler et al., 2020). Similarly, an earlier study on training a new generation of stewards (Sardi & Skanavis, 2023) reports that ‘environmental knowledge’ develops when information for environmental transformation is systematically created and exchanged (Omidvar et al., 2019; Wright, 2006) to bridge the gap between expert and non-technical audiences. This trend demonstrates that EE potentially increases environmental outcomes for stewardship, including ‘environmental knowledge’, attitudes and behaviours.

This study found that children’s willingness and curiosity to care for the environment were influenced by outdoor and nature-based learning activities. Ernst and Burcak (2019) affirm that participation in appreciative outdoor experiences can foster a lasting ‘connection with nature’. Activities such as nature play, observation and studying living organisms (Omidvar et al., 2019) promote curiosity, empathy, creative thinking, discovery and resilience, which are key problem-solving skills for environmental stewardship (Contreras & Krasny, 2022; Omidvar et al., 2019). Thus, EE is arguably more effective when delivered in nature, as such experiences strengthen emotional connections to the environment (Wright, 2006), enhance environmental outcomes and support positive ‘ecological behaviour’ (Otto & Pensini, 2017). However, this study revealed that outdoor activities were limited by time and facilitator capacity to organize meaningful experiences. Literature further highlights additional constraints, including participant characteristics, site accessibility and resource availability (Omidvar et al., 2019).

This study highlighted key environmental stewardship attributes under the ‘ecological behaviour’ dimension, namely restoration, collaboration and ethical actions, which are largely shaped by each school’s action plan. However, this dimension was the least developed owing to limited time and competing contextual priorities such as formal curriculum demands, inter-school competitions and exam preparation. Some pupils also transferred schools, thereby disrupting continuity. However, given that the bridge between learning and action is central to social transformation (Schnitzler, 2019), and that human actions are key precursors for ecological challenges, it is critical that these actions constitute important pathways for sustainable solutions (Folke et al., 2009). To foster effective actions for sustainable solutions (Hofman, 2015), it is vital to utilize outdoor and nature-based learning activities as these have the potential to cultivate pupils’ critical thinking and challenge their values (Omidvar et al., 2019). Additionally, future research should examine how social and institutional contexts influence pupils’ ecological behaviour (Bennett et al., 2018; Bhurekeni, 2022) and education policies should integrate environmental education into the formal curriculum (UNESCO, 2016), promote interdisciplinary teaching and prioritize environmental stewardship. Prioritizing environmental stewardship and active stakeholder participation in the integrated curriculum development may strengthen pupils’ agency and actions to address local and global environmental issues (Monroe et al., 2023), thereby contributing to a curriculum that strongly connects with emerging sustainability issues (Mathie & Wals, 2022). Nonetheless, behavioural outcomes are influenced by resource constraints and psychological barriers, including peer pressure and perceived ineffectiveness (van de Wetering et al., 2022).

Based on this study, only a few pupils demonstrated ethical (normative) attributes (responsibility, morality, care, commitment and sustainable values), yet these are critical to children’s stewardship (Fischer et al., 2021; Uggla & Soneryd, 2023). The development of ethical attributes was supported by action-related knowledge on children’s stewardship roles and by their ‘connection with nature’. Ethical attributes potentially enhance children’s moral responsibility, ability to sustainably utilize resources (Bhurekeni, 2022; Welchman, 2012), strengthen their ‘connection with nature’ and increase the agency for stewardship. We therefore propose ethical education as essential for cultivating such attributes. Moreover, the learning content and facilitation approach should be age-appropriate (Contreras & Krasny, 2022). This study thus recommends further research into ethics and effective strategies for fostering it.

This study found that children developed collaborative attributes through the EE programme, supported by learning content and learning activities that emphasize collaboration and learning via environmental clubs. These attributes are essential, as stewardship is increasingly viewed as inherently collaborative, bringing together diverse stakeholders through information sharing and care for nature (Cockburn et al., 2019). Collaborative attributes further promote a collective agenda grounded in individual and joint actions (Misanya et al., 2023) necessary for addressing complex ecological challenges. They create opportunities for children to learn from diverse personalities and experiences, foster peer support and appreciation, and encourage experimentation with new ideas (Schnitzler, 2019). Learning to collaborate at a young age can help children grow into inclusive, empathetic and open-minded stewards as adults.

This study found that competence attributes are interrelated and mutually reinforcing. For instance, ‘environmental knowledge’ enhanced pupils’ awareness of ecological conditions, the interdependence of environmental elements (systems knowledge) and the understanding of what to care for and how to care (action-related/effectiveness knowledge). ‘Connection with nature’ fostered the curiosity for further ‘environmental knowledge’ and supported the development of ‘ecological behaviour’. Pupils, for example, developed a sense of identity with nature and appreciation for nature, recognized the value of collective efforts (collaborative attitudes) and nurtured hope for restoration (restoration attitude). Furthermore, ‘ecological behaviour’ is shaped by both ‘environmental knowledge’ and ‘connection with nature’ (Misanya et al., 2024; Roczen et al., 2014), as evidenced by the influence of action-related knowledge, restoration attitudes and collaborative attitudes on pupils’ restoration efforts. Restoration attitudes, in turn, motivated learners to acquire further knowledge and actively participate in stewardship. Through the PIP visioning and action-planning tool, pupils saw watershed restoration as both possible and attainable. However, environmental knowledge can also trigger fear, anxiety and feelings of helplessness, potentially discouraging engagement (Schramm et al., 2022). This can be mitigated by fostering action-related knowledge and encouraging collaborative action (Moyer & Sinclair, 2020).Based on these interconnections, we suggest educational environments that simultaneously develop stewardship competence attributes. Fortunately, the PIP approach has a practical focus of engaging pupils in generating aspirations, planning, acting, experiencing, reflecting on and learning from their actions (Misanya et al., 2023). Learning takes place when an action is undertaken, and actions similarly reinforce certain forms of knowledge, thereby creating a learning loop. Consequently, stewardship knowledge and attitudes need further exploration and integration to enhance stewardship action.

The preceding discussion illuminates the core competences that children require to participate as environmental stewards and elaborates on the interconnectedness among them. Moreover, these competences align with the ESD competences such as collaboration, systems thinking, normative competence and strategic/action competences (Bianchi, 2020; Misanya et al., 2024).

This study did not compare schools which were implementing the EE programme and those which were not, nor did it assess differences between participating and non-participating pupils. Instead, it employed a baseline approach, leveraging the lack of an explicit focus on environmental stewardship in Uganda’s primary education policy documents (MoES, 2022; NEMA, 2019) to evaluate changes in stewardship competence. Hence, future research employing a comparative design could offer deeper insights into competence development in rural schools.

Educational Features Influencing Stewardship Competence Development

In this study, pupils were exposed to learning content centred on the Manafwa Watershed, including its current state, pupils’ stewardship responsibilities, individual and collective restoration actions, and the impacts of mitigation measures (effectiveness knowledge). This exposure contributed to the development of environmental literacy, an integral component of stewardship. Children need adequate environmental knowledge to make decisions regarding their personal and environmental well-being (Wright, 2006). Similarly, UNESCO (2016) underscores that EE should foster learners’ agency, problem-solving skills and core competences for improving their communities and everyday lives. This educational potential is deeply rooted in the relevance and structure of the learning content. Accordingly, the design of stewardship-oriented content should incorporate contextual elements that link knowledge to real-life experiences and cultural backgrounds, thereby cultivating a sense of place and nurturing ethical attributes among learners (Bhurekeni, 2022).

This study found that all EE facilitators were professionally trained teachers. The MWARES project further trained the patrons about the PIP methodology, and they continued to receive technical support whenever needed. However, some struggled to interpret certain concepts and implement all the learning activities, especially during outdoor activities. Yet, facilitator capacity determines the effectiveness of an EE programme (Nalumenya et al., 2023; Sardi & Skanavis, 2023). Facilitator capacity is further advocated in the literature because ecological restoration necessitates the collaboration and capacitated stakeholders (Cockburn et al., 2019). Even in resource-limited contexts, it is not material resources but the resourcefulness of the teacher that largely influences impact (Ruthanam et al., 2021) because teachers influence learning goals, determine learning activities, motivate learners and identify resources (Omidvar et al., 2019). Therefore, continuous training focused on practical, collaborative and outdoor learning approaches is essential for strengthening facilitator capacity.

It is crucial to focus on the pedagogy and learning vision while facilitating education for sustainability (Hofman, 2015). The PIP visioning and action-planning tool (Kessler et al., 2020) applied in the EE programme enabled pupils to develop school improvement plans and strategies to achieve them. By supporting participatory learning and reflection, the visioning and action-planning tool fostered pupils’ awareness of the current and dream situation and the possibilities of achieving their dreams (Schramm et al., 2022). Reflection enables children to gain a broader understanding of stewardship and the significance of their actions on nature (Contreras & Krasny, 2022). The tool enabled pupils and teachers to determine specific activities to address their schools’ environmental needs. Similarly, Uggla and Soneryd (2023) assert that education related to sustainable development should not be based on predefined learning content and learning activities but should be open to the evolving meaning of sustainable development in various contexts. Moreover, action-planning is heralded as a core sustainability competence (Hofman, 2015). Hence, we suggest the adaptation of the PIP visioning and action-planning tool to similar contexts to develop competence attributes of children and foster their participation in environmental stewardship.

The EE programme employed participatory, collaborative and practical learning activities. Collaboration was framed as essential for stewardship in rural contexts (Misanya et al., 2023), enabling pupils to support peers, share knowledge and mobilize local resources. Collaborative learning strengthened the facilitation approach and fostered synergies, reinforcing the belief that individual and collective actions could improve the watershed. Such engagement promotes interactive learning and supports shared meaning-making (Bhurekeni, 2022). EE is particularly effective when grounded in group-based and practical learning activities (van de Wetering et al., 2022), which encourage dialogue, curiosity and knowledge co-creation. This study found storytelling especially useful in helping pupils understand watershed history, as stories are a keyway people relate to their environment (Hughes & Moscardo, 2024). Demonstrations, brainstorming and practical learning activities further enhanced pupils’ confidence to participate in stewardship. Multiple learning activities thus play a vital role in fostering children’s environmental engagement.