Abstract
Although students with externalizing behaviors inherently exhibit behaviors that contribute to poor teacher relationships, little research has examined the positive characteristics these students may possess that serve to facilitate positive teacher relationships. This study explores the moderating effects of adaptability, social skills, and study skills on the teacher relationships of students with externalizing behaviors. Participants were a sample of 418 first through fifth graders (63% male). Fifty-four teachers completed the Student–Teacher Relationship Scale (STRS) and Behavioral Assessment System for Children–Teacher Rating Scales for Children (BASC TRS-C) to provide information on student relationships, students’ levels of externalizing behavior, adaptability, social skills, and study skills. The findings suggested that adaptability, social skills, and study skills are important characteristics that contribute to all teacher–student relationships. However, adaptability and social skills contribute more positively to teacher–student relationships for students who exhibit externalizing behaviors. These findings suggest areas for intervention to improve teacher relationships for children with externalizing behaviors.
Positive relationships between students and teachers create classroom atmospheres optimal for teaching, learning, and positive classroom exchanges, all of which are protective factors against negative outcomes associated with externalizing behaviors (Griggs, Gagnon, Huelsman, Kidder-Ashley, & Ballard, 2009; P. Lee & Bierman, 2015; O’Connor, Collins, & Supplee, 2012; Stipek & Miles, 2008). Through positive interactions, teachers contribute to the development of children’s academic skills, help regulate activity level, provide behavior support, teach coping skills, and regulate students’ communication and contact with peers (Pianta, 1999; Sabol & Pianta, 2012). Teacher–student relationship quality affects many student outcomes such as classroom social adjustment and academic performance (Arbeau, Coplan, & Weeks, 2010; Birch & Ladd, 1997; Pianta, 1999; Roorda, Koomen, Split, & Oort, 2011). Strong teacher–student relationships motivate teachers to spend extra time and energy promoting student success, therefore positively affecting academic performance (Breeman et al., 2015; Hamre & Pianta, 2001; Mercer & DeRosier, 2008).
Relationship quality between students with externalizing behaviors and teachers predicts students’ future academic and social outcomes even after controlling for the teacher’s view of the student’s problem behavior and cognitive ability (Doumen et al., 2008; Entwisle & Hayduk, 1988; Stipek & Miles, 2008). Kindergarten teachers’ report of relationship negativity is related to grades, test scores, and students’ work habits throughout the lower elementary grades (Hamre & Pianta, 2001). A positive relationship between children with externalizing behaviors and teachers is paramount in preventing negative outcomes associated with their behavior. Research shows that when children with externalizing behaviors form strong and positive relationships with teachers, they are more likely to have occasional misbehavior overlooked because teachers are more knowledgeable of their circumstances and subsequent needs (Baker, Grant, & Morlock, 2008; Hamre & Pianta, 2001).
Approximately 7% to 22% of children exhibit some of the externalizing behavioral concerns (Carter et al., 2010; Pastor, Reuben, & Duran, 2012). Due to their behavioral concerns, children with externalizing behaviors are frequently served outside of the general education classroom (Abidin & Robinson, 2002; Maggin, Wehby, Partin, Robertson, & Oliver, 2011). Today, because of the recent push for inclusive classrooms, schools keep students in the general education classroom to the greatest extent possible (McLeskey, Rosenberg, & Westling, 2010). The shift from placing children with externalizing behaviors outside of the general education classroom to keeping them in the classrooms can put additional strain on the teacher relationships of students with externalizing behaviors. Therefore, at this time, it is crucial to identify the risk and protective factors associated with the teacher relationships of students with externalizing behaviors.
Studies consistently find that students with high levels of externalizing behaviors are at a higher risk for poor teacher relationships (e.g., Baker et al., 2008; Blankenmeyer, Flannery, & Vazsonyi, 2002; Doumen et al., 2008). Although all children are susceptible to negative teacher relationships, children with externalizing behaviors possess characteristics that increase their risk when compared with other children (Jerome, Hamre, & Pianta, 2009). At a student level, externalizing symptomology such as aggression, hyperactivity, defiance, and social withdrawal discourages positive teacher–student relationships (Birch & Ladd, 1998; Jerome et al., 2009), and is a strong predictor of conflict and dependency (Murray & Murray, 2004). Children with externalizing behaviors can cause difficulties for teachers within the general education classroom. They often disrupt class, require special academic assistance, and have difficulty developing positive relationships with teachers (Baker et al., 2008; Birch & Ladd, 1998). At a teacher level, teachers spend more time engaged in negative interactions with externalizing students and significantly less time engaged in positive interactions (Jack et al., 1996; Wehby, Lane, & Falk, 2003). The ratio of negative to positive interactions alone is enough to be detrimental to their teacher–student relationship (Shores et al., 1993; Wehby, Symons, & Shores, 1995). The literature is clear about the importance and dynamics of teacher–student relationships and student outcomes. However, limited research has examined the intersection of externalizing behaviors and developmental strengths on teacher–student relationships. The present investigation contributes to the literature by examining the strengths of children with externalizing behaviors and their impact on teacher–student relationships.
Developmental Strengths
The literature on risk and resilience introduces the concept of developmental strengths. Resilience was introduced after researchers developed theories about risk (Wright & Masten, 2005), and is defined as a “pattern of positive adaptation in the context of significant risk or adversity” (Masten & Powell, 2003, p. 4). Wright and Masten (2005) defined risk as “an elevated probability of an undesirable outcome” (p. 19). In the present study, the risk is externalizing behavior with the outcome being negative teacher–student relationships. However, children with externalizing behaviors may have developmental strengths (resilience) that moderate the influence of their risk factor (externalizing behavior) on their developmental outcome (teacher–student relationships). Developmental strengths in children that may lead to resilience include a positive temperament/easy-going personality, positive social orientation, and a high achievement orientation (Chapin, 2015; Doll & Lyon, 1998; Sesma, Mannes, & Scales, 2005). The present study will investigate how developmental strengths, such as adaptability, social skills, and study skills, play a role in the formation of teacher relationships.
Adaptability
A child’s temperament is a key facet that may affect their ability to form positive teacher relationships. Some children are born with the ability to cope with distress, are easily comforted, and handle negative situations well. Over time, temperament translates into the ability to adapt to adjustments in routines, setbacks, or a change in task requirements (Carey, 1998; De Pauw & Mervielde, 2010). The features of adaptability facilitate successful integration into the school culture. Teachers look favorably upon children who are emotionally stable, calm, cooperative, and adaptable to changing classroom routines (Keogh, 1994; Kornblau, 1982). As a result, a child with externalizing behaviors and high levels of adaptability may have a better fit within the classroom and the capacity to develop a positive teacher–student relationship. Research supports this claim, finding that school adjustment mediates the relationship between child factors and relationship quality (Blankenmeyer et al., 2002; Murray & Murray, 2004). Aggressive children who were well adjusted were more likely to have favorable views concerning their teacher relationships than aggressive children who were not well adjusted. On the contrary, temperamental traits, such as low adaptability, may lead to a poor fit within the classroom and to behavioral or functional disturbances in the child. These disturbances cause subsequent behavioral problems and/or negative teacher–student relationships (Griggs et al., 2009; Thomas, Chess, & Birch, 1968). Individuals with high adaptability, who are also able to socialize effectively, may be even more likely to develop positive relationships with teachers.
Social Skills
Displaying appropriate social skills is another factor that may moderate the relationship between externalizing behaviors and teacher–student relationships. Most research that investigates the social skills of children with externalizing behaviors identifies deficiencies in this area (Dishion, Andrews, & Crosby, 1995; Patterson, Reid, & Dishion, 1992; Wiley, Siperstein, Forness, & Brigham, 2010). Social interactions of children with externalizing behaviors tend to be abrasive, uncooperative, and unstable (Wiley et al., 2010). However, some children with externalizing behaviors may have the ability to socialize effectively with teachers. The ability to socialize effectively despite externalizing behaviors is a developmental strength that may protect students from the formation of negative teacher relationships. Past literature on resilience has demonstrated the protective effects of social skills on teacher–student relationships (Hughes, Cavell, & Willson, 2001; Sesma et al., 2005; Smith & Prior, 1995). Although equally important to success as an adult, social skills appear to play a more prominent role in teacher–student relationships than academic skills or study skills (Stuhlman & Pianta, 2001).
Study Skills
Appropriate study skills contribute to successful learning, promote academic success, and facilitate the development of positive teacher–student relationships (Gettinger & Seiber, 2002). Researchers find positive associations between academic competencies and teacher–student relationships. Thus, the stronger the academic competencies, the closer, less conflicted relationships students have with teachers (Ladd, Birch, & Buhs, 1999; Murray & Greenberg, 2000; Murray & Murray, 2004). Unfortunately, evidence shows that the positive effect of achievement on student–teacher relationships has less impact if the child has problem behaviors (Mantzicopoulos, 2005). Other research finds that the quality of teacher–student relationships reflects how children are able to engage in the instructional resources in the classroom (Entwisle & Hayduk, 1988), and teachers prefer and provide higher expectations for students who demonstrate higher levels of engagement in classrooms (Brophy, 1986; Good & Brophy, 1994). Clearly, further investigation is necessary to understand the interactions among the variables that moderate the relationship between students with externalizing behaviors and their teachers.
Current Study and Hypotheses
Although previous research provides some insight into developmental strengths and teacher relationships, there are several limitations. First, the reviewed studies investigate the relationships among the general population, failing to look specifically at children with externalizing behaviors. Second, studies that focus on children with externalizing behaviors focus on their deficits rather than their strengths. Thus, limited research exists that addresses the buffering function developmental strengths may play in teacher relationships for students with externalizing behaviors. The current exploratory study contributes to the literature by using a multilevel model to examine the effects of developmental strengths such as adaptability, social skills, and study skills on the teacher relationships of children with externalizing behaviors. It was hypothesized that adaptability, social skills, and study skills would moderate the relationship between externalizing behaviors and teacher–student relationships.
Method
Procedures
Children in kindergarten through fifth grade from four schools were recruited to participate in the study. Consent forms were sent home with each child in their native language at the beginning of the school year. Teachers sent home up to three reminders about returning the consent forms. Students were only allowed to participate in the study with active parental consent. This procedure led to more than 90% of participation from students in each of the schools. Teachers who participated in the study completed the measures as a part of a larger battery during the mid-to-late fall of the school year. Teachers provided informed consent and received a small remuneration for participating in the study.
The sample was selected from the larger study and children were then categorized into the externalizing or average group based on their scores on the Behavioral Assessment System for Children–Teacher Rating Scales for Children (BASC TRS-C; Reynolds & Kamphaus, 1992). Externalizing students had externalizing T scores of more than 60 (M = 69.73, SD = 7.6). The average group had externalizing T scores between 45 and 55 (M = 49.46, SD = 3.00). The two groups were matched by gender, race, and grade level (see Table 1).
Demographics of Matched Sample.
Note. BASC = Behavioral Assessment System for Children.
Participants
Children
The participants were 418 first through fifth graders from four elementary schools in the Southeastern United States. Within the externalizing group, there were 45 first graders (20%), 23 second graders (13%), 37 third graders (19%), 54 fourth graders (21%), and 50 fifth graders (25%). The average age was 8.7 (SD = 1.6). Sixty-three percent of the sample was male. Among the participants, 79% were African American, 16% were Caucasian, 1% were Hispanic, and 3% were Other. The sample was representative of the district with approximately 54% of the district being African American and 35% Caucasian. Approximately 70% of the students in the participating school district were eligible for free- or reduced-cost lunch. Poverty and race are confounded in the district with more African American students eligible for the free- or reduced-cost lunch program than students from other racial groups.
Teachers
Fifty-four teachers completed ratings of the children included in the study. The sample was 72% female, 63% Caucasian, and 11% African American. More than half of the sample had more than 6 years of experience, and 5% were first-year teachers. Teachers varied in their level of education; however, 57% had graduate degrees.
Measures
Teacher–student relationship
The items for teacher–student relationship quality were selected from the Student–Teacher Relationship Scale (STRS; Pianta, & Nimetz, 1991). The overall measure is a 35-item, self-report, 5-point Likert-type scale that measures teachers’ perceptions about their relationship with students (M = 34.54, SD = 7.49). A brief measure was used to reduce the length of the battery administered as a part of the larger study. The 9 items selected reflected both close, warm relationships and negative reactivity that were summed so that high scores represent a positive relationship quality. The measure had an internal consistency reliability of .87 with the current sample. A principal components factor analysis with varimax rotation suggested the measure consisted of two factors, one 5-item subscale measuring closeness (α = .80) and a 4-item subscale reflecting conflict (α = .86). The conflict subscale was reversed so that high scores indicate high conflict with teachers.
Standardized behavior ratings
The BASC TRS-C (Reynolds & Kamphaus, 1992) is a 148-item measure on which teachers rate the incidence of problem behaviors on a 4-point Likert-type scale. The BASC TRS-C is a nationally standardized, reliable, and valid measure that yields nine problem behavior scales and four adaptive skills scales and summary (composite) scores (Sandoval & Echandia, 1995). Standard scores with a mean of 50 and a standard deviation of 10 are used to describe children’s behavioral adjustment. The present study used the Externalizing Composite and the Adaptability, Social Skills, and Study Skills Scales. The Externalizing Composite (M = 59.59, SD = 11.67) consists of Hyperactivity, Aggression, and Conduct Problem subscales, and measures disruptive behavior problems. The Adaptability (M = 41.15; SD = 11.29), Social Skills (M = 44.53, SD = 9.35), and Study skills (M = 43.19, SD = 8.88) subscales measure the ability to make appropriate responses to changing situations, the skills necessary for competent social interaction, and the use of methods used to facilitate the process of studying, respectively. Although the present study uses the BASC and not the BASC-2, the two scales are highly correlated in the areas assessed: Externalizing Problems (.96), Adaptability (.93), Social Skills (.97), and Study Skills (.97; Reynolds & Kamphaus, 2004).
Data Analyses
We used a multilevel model to examine the effects of adaptability, social skills, and study skills on the relationship between externalizing behaviors and teacher–student relationships. Multilevel modeling accounts for the nesting of children within classrooms (Raudenbush & Bryk, 2002), and is a more appropriate approach than conventional methods such as regression analyses that may produce smaller standard errors (V. E. Lee, 2000). Externalizing behavior was dummy coded (average vs. externalizing) while adaptability, social skills, and study skills were mean centered to eliminate problems of multicollinearity.
Results
Preliminary Analyses
It was hypothesized that adaptability, study skills, and social skills would moderate the relationship between children’s externalizing behavior and teacher relationships. Correlation analyses are presented in Table 2. The results of the correlation for the model indicate that it is well conditioned with correlations below the .80 level. Furthermore, the variance inflation factor (VIF) test for multicollinearity prior to mean centering the variables was within the acceptable range, ranging from 1.70 to 1.92, well below the cutoff score of 10. Additional correlations separated by group are presented in Table 3.
Estimated Correlation Between Fixed Effects Coefficients.
Bivariate Correlations Between Variables by Group.
Note. Correlations for students in the average group are presented below the diagonal, and correlations for students in the externalizing group are presented above the diagonal.
Multilevel Data Analyses
Table 4 shows the results of the multilevel data analyses. A null model was estimated to determine how much variance was attributed to classroom teachers (see Model 0 in Table 4). The classroom teacher grouping variable was significant (p < .001) and explained 22% of the total variance in teacher–student relationships. This significance confirms the use of a multilevel analysis, as the outcome varied significantly by classroom teacher. Model 1 (see Table 4) includes the individual variables externalizing behavior, adaptability, study skills, and social skills. Externalizing behavior is significantly negatively related to teacher–student relationships (p < .001). Significant positive relationships were found among adaptability (p < .001), study skills (p < .001), social skills (p < .001), and teacher–student relationships, indicating that adaptability, study skills, and social skills contribute positively to teacher relationships for all children.
Results of the Multilevel Analysis for Teacher–Student Relationships.
Finally, Model 2 (see Table 4) includes the interactions between externalizing behavior and adaptability, study skills, and social skills. Adaptability moderately affected the relationship between externalizing behavior and teacher–student relationship (p = .052). Thus, adaptability influences teacher–student relationship quality more for students with externalizing behaviors than for students without externalizing behaviors. This relationship is depicted in Figure 1. A moderately significant relationship was also found between social skills and teacher–student relationship (p = .051), with social skills contributing more to the teacher–student relationships of students with externalizing behaviors than for students without (see Figure 2). No moderating effect of study skills on teacher–student relationships was found.
The moderating role of adaptability on teacher–student relationships.
The moderating role of social skills on teacher–student relationships.
Discussion
The positive qualities of children with externalizing behaviors is a phenomenon often underinvestigated. Investigating positive qualities may help determine how to increase the positive interactions of children with externalizing behaviors with their teachers. The purpose of the present study was to determine whether developmental strengths are protective factors against the development of negative teacher relationships. The results suggest that the developmental strengths of adaptability, social skills, and study skills are linked to the development of positive relationships for all children. Social skills and adaptability have a greater impact on the teacher relationships of students with externalizing behaviors. The results of the present study support previous research on teacher–student relationships and contribute to the literature by analyzing the impact of the developmental strengths of externalizing students on these relationships.
Positive teacher relationships are protective factors against the myriad of negative outcomes associated with externalizing behaviors (Hamre & Pianta, 2001; Hoza et al., 2005; P. Lee & Bierman, 2015). Given the amount of research supporting these findings, researchers should continue to investigate ways to increase teacher relationships. The present study attempted to address this area of concern by looking at child strengths that can be built upon to increase the likelihood of positive teacher–student relationships.
Our results indicate that adaptability is associated with positive teacher relationships for all children. This was expected given that teachers look more favorably upon students who adjust well to classroom routines (Blankenmeyer et al., 2002; Kornblau, 1982; Murray & Murray, 2004; Thomas et al., 1968). The relationship between adaptability and teacher–student relationships is even stronger for children with externalizing behaviors. These results suggest for all students, especially those with externalizing behaviors, interventions aimed at increasing a student’s skills related to flexibility and adaptability may have positive indirect effects on teacher–student relationships.
Consistent with prior research, we found an equally strong relationship between study skills and teacher–student relationships for externalizers and nonexternalizers. Thus, teachers look favorably upon students who complete assignments, follow directions, complete work on time, and are attentive to classroom proceedings regardless of behavior problems (Keogh, 1994; Kornblau, 1982). The results are consistent with other research demonstrating the positive effect of achievement on student–teacher relationships (Mantzicopoulos, 2005).
In addition, although academic achievement is vital to the future success of all students, other research suggests that strong academic skills do not significantly contribute to better positive teacher relationships for children with externalizing behaviors (Stuhlman & Pianta, 2001). It may also be that externalizing children’s high rates of negativity overshadow their academic skills in class. Future research should investigate the role study skills and related academic achievement plays in other social relationships or self-perceptions of students with externalizing behaviors.
Finally, social skills were significantly related to the development of positive teacher relationships for average as well as externalizing children. Teachers tend to have favorable views of students with the ability to socialize effectively (Hughes et al., 2001; Kornblau, 1982; Sesma et al., 2005). A stronger relationship between social skills and teacher–student relationships emerged for externalizers. This is logical due to the social nature of externalizing behavior, the nature of developing relationships and the social competencies or lack thereof associated with each. This significant finding is inconsistent with some research that finds an insignificant effect of prosocial behavior on the teacher relationships with externalizing children (Henricsson & Rydell, 2004). Our study, on the contrary, indicates that if a child is prosocial despite some difficulties with externalizing behavior, then the child is more likely to have a better teacher relationship. Differences in sample nature (e.g., United States vs. Switzerland), make up, size, and the type of data may account for the inconsistencies in the current study and past work.
Research that examines the social or peer relationships of students with externalizing behaviors finds that they are often viewed as being popular (LaFontana & Cillessen, 2002; Lease, Musgrove, & Axelrod, 2002; Waasdorp, Baker, Paskewich, & Leff, 2013). Furthermore, researchers find that externalizing students who have social skills are able to maximize social opportunities and promote order within social systems (Cairns & Cairns, 2000; Hawley, 1999). This influences not only peer relationships but teacher relationships as well, with teachers acknowledging these students’ place in the social ecology (Farmer & Xie, 2007). Specifically, researchers find that a student’s status with peers predicts teacher–student relationship quality, such that higher peer status predicts more teacher support (De Laet et al., 2014).
Although we were able to find a relationship between social skills and teacher–student relationships, it is important to put the findings into perspective; the effect of social skills on externalizing student–teacher relationships is not nearly as large as the effect of the actual externalizing behavior itself. However, school resources dedicated to systems level, small group, and individual student social skills training may have secondary positive effects on relationships between students and teachers.
Limitations and Future Directions
Although the present study examines the underinvestigated strengths of students with externalizing behaviors, some limitations should be noted. First, teacher ratings were used to measure all constructs, as well as to classify the moderating variables. Although longitudinal research finds that teacher ratings of children’s behavior are valid and efficient indicators of children’s competence (e.g., Verhulst, Koot, & Van der Ende, 1994), other research questions whether teachers can rate certain concepts accurately (e.g., Ready & Wright, 2011). Unfortunately, the methods used in this study are subject to within-measure and within-rater bias, affecting the results. Therefore, future studies should employ multiple methods and raters. Second, the size and demographic composition of our sample may have affected our results. Specifically, our small sample size may have contributed to our marginally significant results and the high proportions of African American, low-income students limit the generalization of the findings. Finally, the impact of student race on teacher relationships and school adjustment should be considered. Race effects have been noted in some research on teacher relationships (e.g., Hamre & Pianta, 2001; Meehan, Hughes, & Cavell, 2003). The present study attempted to account for differences by matching the demographic characteristics of both the average and externalizing groups. Thus, both groups had equal numbers of African American students.
The results of the present study suggest that social skills, adaptability, and study skills play a role in the development of teacher relationships for all students. However, when it comes to externalizing children, social skills and adaptability skills have a bigger impact on teacher relationships than it does for average children. Our findings indicate that if one wants to strengthen the relationship between students with externalizing behaviors and teachers, focusing on adaptability and social skills could prove fruitful in this endeavor. Improving a student’s academic performance or study skills is also a viable option as it improves the teacher relationships of all students, but it is not likely to contribute to the improvement of the student–teacher relationship beyond what it contributes for typical peers.
The present study’s findings are significant because having the knowledge of what enhances student–teacher relationships will positively impact externalizing students, teachers, and classrooms. Enriching the teacher–student relationships of externalizing children may inhibit possible undesirable outcomes, such as the negative impact it has on grades, test scores, and students’ work habits (Hamre & Pianta, 2001). In addition, enriching teacher–student relationships may positively affect teachers because it motivates them to spend extra time and energy promoting student success (Hamre & Pianta, 2001; Mercer & DeRosier, 2008). Furthermore, enhancing the teacher–student relationship is important for the classroom as a whole because negative relationships detract from positive classroom exchanges (Griggs et al., 2009; Stipek & Miles, 2008).
These findings substantiate the need to continue the development and implementation of positive teacher relationships through school initiatives such as School-Wide Positive Behavior Interventions and Supports (SWPBIS). SWPBIS has been found to increase the number of positive interactions between children and their teachers and improve the teacher–student relationship (Sugai & Horner, 2002). This is key, particularly for externalizing youth who are particularly vulnerable to negative teacher interactions. Future research should continue to look at various developmental strengths of students with externalizing behaviors using a large sample. It is important not to solely focus on the deficits of students with externalizing behaviors but also to build on the strengths students with externalizing behaviors may bring into the school setting.
Footnotes
Acknowledgements
The authors thank Jean Baker and Jonathan Campbell for their thoughtful comments on earlier drafts of this article.
Authors’ Note
The content is solely the responsibility of the authors and does not necessarily represent the official views of the National Institutes of Health.
Declaration of Conflicting Interests
The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.
Funding
The author(s) disclosed receipt of the following financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article: This research was supported in part by a National Institutes on Drug Abuse training grant to the Center for Drug Abuse Research Translation at the University of Kentucky (DA 05312).