Exploring the mechanisms of tourist well-being: An application of cognitive appraisal theory and self-determination theory

Abstract

Previous research has established that tourism can bring happiness and well-being to tourists. However, the specific mechanisms by which travel leads to well-being are not yet fully understood. To address this knowledge gap, this study integrated Cognitive Appraisal Theory (CAT) and Self-Determination Theory (SDT) to predict tourist well-being. The study employed a quantitative approach and used a sample population of tourists who had traveled abroad for at least 3 days in the past 12 months. Data was collected from an online panel owned by the Centre of Tourism Research in Prince Edward Island (PEI), resulting in a final sample size of 396. Two-step analysis, including Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA) and Structural Equation Modelling (SEM), was performed on the data. The findings support the predictions of CAT and SDT and establish connections between the theories. Specifically, the study found that SDT's psychological needs of autonomy and relatedness mediate the relationship between the positive emotions elicited by the trip and tourists’ psychological well-being.

Keywords

Tourist well-being self determination theory cognitive appraisal theory subjective well-being travel intention

Introduction

In the aftermath of COVID-19, invigorating positive emotions toward tourism services remains essential for the tourism industry’s recovery (Yung et al., 2020). The tourism and hospitality sector, being intensively competitive, demands that consumers receive not just excellent service and facilities; it necessitates unique, transformative experiences influencing tourists’ well-being (Knutson et al., 2006). Although tourism’s impact on happiness is well-documented (Carter and Gilovich, 2012; Van Boven and Gilovich, 2003), there is a need to distinguish happiness from the broader construct of subjective well-being (SWB). Happiness often manifests through emotional responses such as smiles and enjoyment (Meseroll, 2017), while SWB is a more holistic measure of an individual’s perception of their life experience (Diener et al., 2002).

This study focuses on psychological well-being (PWB). While previous literature, such as the works of Gilbert and Abdullah (2004), Nawijn (2010, 2011), and Nawijn et al. (2012) highlights the positive relationship between tourism and increased happiness, these studies primarily concentrate on immediate or short-term effects. In contrast, there is a notable lack of in-depth research exploring how travel experiences translate into broader, long-term impacts on tourists’ overall well-being, as emphasized by McCabe and Johnson (2013) and Uysal et al. (2016).

Moreover, subjective well-being (SWB) alone does not fully capture the multifaceted nature of well-being (F. F. Chen et al., 2013). While SWB is concerned with the balance of emotions and assessments of life satisfaction, PWB investigates more profound aspects of human development, such as purpose in life, autonomy, and personal growth (Joshanloo, 2019). SWB and PWB provide a more comprehensive understanding of an individual’s overall well-being (F. F. Chen et al., 2013). Consequently, our study addresses these unexplored areas: Understanding how travel experiences contribute to positive emotions and a sustained sense of psychological well-being. Consequently, our study seeks to address these unexplored areas: Understanding the mechanisms by which travel experiences contribute to positive emotions and a sustained sense of psychological well-being.

To address this question, the study explores the interrelationships between travel experiences, positive emotions, and psychological well-being. We posit that tourism experiences can evoke positive emotions, influencing an individual’s broader sense of well-being (Oh et al., 2007). Kay Smith and Diekmann (2017) highlight the complex nature of studying tourism and well-being, specifically pointing out the difficulty in directly observing conscious introspective experiences. Given these complexities, our study aims to elucidate the relationships between travel experiences, positive emotions, and psychological well-being. To accomplish this, we adopt a comprehensive input/output model that focuses on the positive emotions and psychological well-being of general leisure tourists engaged in international travel.

Our research framework integrates two key psychological theories: Cognitive Appraisal Theory (CAT) and Self-Determination Theory (SDT). CAT allows us to understand how tourists’ evaluations of their experiences give rise to specific emotions (Lee and Lee, 2021). In contrast, SDT provides a framework for examining how intrinsic psychological needs like autonomy, competence, and relatedness contribute to tourists’ well-being (Ryan and Deci, 2019).

The integration of CAT and SDT serves a dual purpose. First, it enables us to predict psychological well-being based on satisfying psychological needs, a correlation validated in previous research (Deci and Ryan, 2008). Second, it adds another layer of validity to our model by incorporating the psychological needs outlined in the SDT framework. Therefore, the combined use of these theories offers a robust approach to understanding the impact of travel experiences on tourists’ positive emotions and overall well-being.

For destination marketers, crafting high-quality experiences that lead to positive outcomes is paramount, as this directly influences future behavioral intentions (Hosany and Gilbert, 2010). Our integrated approach (CAT & SDT) aims to discern the specific positive experiences that pave the way for enhanced subjective well-being. By pinpointing the most influential factors that incite positive emotions, we hope to offer insights that can convert one-time customers into lifelong patrons.

Theoretical Framework

Psychological Well-being

This study focuses on psychological well-being (PWB), which emphasizes a deeper, more multifaceted understanding of well-being, encompassing elements like self-acceptance, autonomy, environmental mastery, positive relationships, purpose in life, and personal growth (Ryff, 1995). Unlike subjective well-being (SWB), which typically refers to overall life satisfaction and the balance between positive and negative emotions (Diener and Lucas, 1999), PWB provides a broader and more comprehensive framework for understanding well-being, particularly about personal development and fulfillment.

Psychological well-being is particularly relevant in the context of tourism because travel often serves as an opportunity for individuals to explore new environments, engage in meaningful activities, and experience personal growth. Studies in tourism have indicated that travel experiences can significantly impact an individual’s sense of autonomy and environmental mastery—key components of PWB (Kim et al., 2015). Tourism experiences, especially those involving new and diverse cultural environments, offer individuals opportunities to reflect on their lives, establish a purpose, and enhance their personal growth and self-acceptance (Y. Chen et al., 2013; Tse, 2014).

Positive Psychology Frameworks: PERMA and DRAMMA

In recent years, various theoretical frameworks in positive psychology have been developed to provide a comprehensive understanding of well-being. One influential model is Seligman’s (2011) PERMA framework, which consists of five essential elements of subjective well-being (SWB): Positive Emotion, Engagement, Relationships, Meaning, and Accomplishment. These components are deeply interconnected, representing the broader concept of SWB. Goodman et al. (2018) highlighted the complementary nature of PERMA with other positive psychology approaches, while Merritt et al. (2023) suggested a network approach to comprehend the interconnections among these components better, emphasizing the holistic nature of the PERMA model.

Another significant framework is DRAMMA, introduced by Newman et al. (2014). DRAMMA posits that fulfilling the five dimensions—Detachment-Recovery, Meaning, Mastery, Autonomy, and Affiliation—leads to enhanced SWB. Like PERMA, DRAMMA provides a holistic understanding of well-being. Twilley et al. (2022) applied this framework to leisure studies, investigating the link between leisure activities and SWB among campus recreation users, and found that leisure satisfaction mediates this relationship.

PERMA and DRAMMA both encompass hedonic and eudaimonic dimensions of well-being. For instance, the Positive Emotion element of PERMA and the Detachment-Recovery element of DRAMMA are considered hedonic, while the other components align more closely with eudaimonic well-being (Newman et al., 2014; Seligman, 2011). This highlights the potential for investigating how hedonic aspects of tourism, such as positive affect, influence eudaimonic aspects related to deeper psychological needs, ultimately contributing to psychological well-being (PWB). To explore these mechanisms, this study integrates Cognitive Appraisal Theory (CAT) and Self-Determination Theory (SDT), both of which have emerged as key frameworks in tourism research, to understand how positive emotions elicited during tourism experiences can influence an individual’s broader sense of well-being (Oh et al., 2007). Smith and Puczkó (2014) also emphasize the importance of positive emotions, engagement, relationships, autonomy, and mastery in shaping tourist experiences, underscoring the applicability of CAT and SDT to understanding well-being within the tourism context.

Cognitive Appraisal Theory (CAT) and Self-Determination Theory (SDT) for Psychological Well-being (PWB)

To comprehensively understand how tourism experiences contribute to psychological well-being (PWB), this study integrates Cognitive Appraisal Theory (CAT) and Self-Determination Theory (SDT), providing an enriched perspective on the impact of tourism on individual well-being. PWB encompasses a more profound, multifaceted understanding of well-being, including self-acceptance, autonomy, environmental mastery, positive relationships, purpose in life, and personal growth (Ryff, 1995). These elements make PWB particularly relevant to tourism, where travel provides opportunities to engage in activities that promote personal development and fulfillment (Kim et al., 2015; F. F. Chen et al., 2013; Tse, 2014).

Cognitive Appraisal Theory (CAT) posits that emotions are elicited by how individuals cognitively evaluate their experiences and determine their significance about personal goals (Lazarus, 1991). In tourism, travelers’ appraisals of their experiences—such as whether the experience is satisfying, novel, or enriching—can directly influence their PWB. Positive appraisals, like novelty and enjoyment, have been linked to positive emotions and an enhanced sense of well-being (Bimonte and Faralla, 2015). For example, Kim et al. (2015) found that travelers who experienced positive cognitive appraisals of their trips reported higher levels of personal growth and life satisfaction post-travel. CAT, therefore, provides a robust framework for understanding how tourism experiences can elicit positive emotions that contribute to PWB (Choi and Choi, 2019; Hosany, 2012; Ma et al., 2017).

Simultaneously, Self-Determination Theory (SDT) asserts that well-being is achieved when three fundamental psychological needs are satisfied: autonomy, competence, and relatedness (Deci and Ryan, 2008). These needs are closely linked to various aspects of the tourism experience. Travelers experience autonomy through the freedom to engage in self-directed activities, make independent choices, and explore new environments. Competence is enhanced by acquiring new skills and knowledge during travel (Uriely, 2005), while relatedness is fostered through meaningful social interactions with locals and other travelers (Chen et al., 2016; Tse, 2014). Satisfying these needs has been shown to significantly impact an individual’s psychological well-being (Ryan and Deci, 2000) and their satisfaction with life (Hill and Howell, 2014; Howell et al., 2013).

By integrating CAT and SDT, this study seeks to explore how tourism experiences contribute to PWB by examining both the cognitive evaluation of experiences and the fulfillment of intrinsic psychological needs. Tourism experiences, such as novelty, positive emotions, and meaningful social interactions, fulfill core psychological needs, thus contributing to PWB. For instance, novelty in tourism, defined as engaging in activities different from everyday routines, enhances an individual’s sense of autonomy (Bimonte and Faralla, 2012; Kim et al., 2015). In addition, meaningful social interactions during travel can fulfill the need for relatedness, ultimately contributing to PWB (Kim et al., 2015).

Cognitive Mechanisms and Psychological Needs

The cognitive mechanisms and psychological needs that drive PWB during tourism can be best understood by examining how positive emotions, as outlined by CAT and SDT, contribute to both short-term and long-term well-being. Fredrickson (2001) suggests that positive emotions not only contribute to momentary well-being but also facilitate long-term psychological growth and resilience. In the tourism context, positive emotions generated through fulfilling travel experiences—novelty, relaxation, or meaningful social interactions—enhance PWB by reinforcing autonomy and competence (Ryan and Deci, 2000).

Tourism experiences contribute to both short-term and long-term well-being. While short-term effects include an immediate boost in overall happiness and satisfaction (Nawijn, 2010; Nawijn et al., 2012), long-term effects pertain to more profound components of PWB, such as self-acceptance, personal growth, and purpose in life (Ryff, 1995). Engaging in meaningful travel experiences allows individuals to reflect on their life goals and fosters a sense of purpose, aligning with Ryff’s dimension of purpose. Moreover, positive emotions generated from tourism have the potential to enhance PWB further, contributing to sustained improvements in personal growth and resilience (Fredrickson, 2001).

By incorporating CAT and SDT into the analysis, this integrated framework provides a comprehensive understanding of how different aspects of tourism experiences, such as novelty, positive emotions, and social interactions, influence PWB. The integration ensures a conceptual consistency throughout the study, offering a nuanced perspective on how tourism contributes to both hedonic and eudaimonic aspects of well-being.

Hypotheses Development

Cognitive Dimensions and Positive Emotions

Positive psychology identifies several cognitive appraisal dimensions that are crucial for eliciting positive emotions in tourists (Gupta et al., 2023; Mirehie and Gibson, 2020). Positive emotions often result from events perceived as beneficial or fulfilling a personal goal or desire (Bagozzi et al., 1999). Johnson and Stewart (2005) posit that an individual’s emotional responses are greatly impacted by their goals’ alignment, significance, and direction—key factors in the appraisal process that play a significant role in eliciting emotions. As these emotions are closely linked to events perceived as beneficial or fulfilling a personal goal, it highlights the importance of personal stakes and goal congruence in forming emotional responses (Bagozzi et al., 1999).

In the context of positive emotions and tourism, these appraisal processes are particularly relevant. Research has shown that vacationers are generally happier than non-vacationers, although some studies have found this difference to be insignificant (Gilbert and Abdullah, 2004; Nawijn, 2010, 2011). Studies have also examined how tourist happiness levels change before, during, and after their trips (Nawijn et al., 2012; Y. Chen et al., 2013). Although tourists may experience emotional fluctuations during their trips, they are generally happier on vacation than in their daily lives (Nawijn, 2011; Nawijn et al., 2012). Moreover, tourists report greater satisfaction with their personal well-being, leisure activities, and interpersonal relationships following their travels. (Gilbert and Abdullah, 2004). However, the effect of happiness on life-domain satisfaction may only be temporary (Nawijn, 2010), influenced by factors such as holiday stress, attitudes towards travel companions, tourist type, and holiday duration (Bimonte and Faralla, 2012; Chen et al., 2016; Nawijn, 2011).

In positive psychology, there is broad agreement on four key appraisal dimensions typically used to distinguish different emotional responses: Goal congruence, goal realization, goal relevance, and novelty. The following hypotheses are proposed based on the research above on tourists’ positive emotions, like happiness.

Goal congruence refers to the degree to which a situation aligns with an individual’s desires, thereby influencing the valence of emotions (Choi and Choi, 2019; Johnson and Stewart, 2005; Kang, 2007). When tourists perceive their experience as congruent with their goals, they will likely experience stronger positive emotions.

Appraisals of goal congruence during a trip will positively affect positive emotions.

Goal relevance refers to the significance of a particular situation to an individual, directly influencing the intensity of their emotional response (Kang, 2007). Goal relevance encompasses the sub-dimensions of goal importance and interest (Ma et al., 2013). In tourism, experiences that are deemed highly relevant to a tourist’s personal goals are expected to elicit more intense positive emotions.

Appraisals of goal interest during a trip will positively affect positive emotions.

Appraisals of goal importance during a trip will positively affect positive emotions.

The final dimension, novelty, pertains to the suddenness and unexpectedness of an experience (Johnson and Stewart, 2005; Ma et al., 2013). Novel experiences during travel can evoke strong positive emotions by providing new and exciting stimuli (Choi and Choi, 2019). Thus, we propose:

Appraisals of novelty during a trip will positively affect positive emotions.

Positive Emotions, Psychological Needs, and Well-being

Existing literature suggests a disconnect between the happy emotions elicited from tourism and a person’s SWB. While some studies have found that tourism contributes to short-term happiness, it may not have a lasting impact on a person’s SWB (Nawijn, 2010). Some studies have suggested that travelers are happier before than after their trip (Kirillova and Lehto, 2015; Nawijn, 2010). On the other hand, Y. Chen et al. (2013) found that happiness increases immediately following a vacation. However, planning a trip can hurt a person’s health and well-being, particularly for women (Nawijn et al., 2013; Kay Smith and Diekmann, 2017). Mitas et al. (2016) have observed that vacations can enhance positive affect throughout the experience of traveling, the length and frequency of trips taken throughout the year do not necessarily affect tourist well-being in the months following the trips.

Positive emotions gained during a trip positively affect tourist autonomy needs fulfilment during and/or after the trip to a destination.

H5a

The fulfillment of tourists’ autonomy needs mediates the connection between positive emotions and well-being.

Positive emotions notably influence attitudes prioritizing others over oneself (Bagozzi et al., 1999). Individuals tend to form stronger social bonds with others when experiencing positive emotions such as love and gratitude (Kashdan et al., 2009). Moreover, individuals are more inclined to share beneficial outcomes with others if doing so elicits positive emotion (Bagozzi et al., 1999). In the workplace, positive emotions also enhance the caliber of our relationships with others (Philippe et al., 2010). Therefore, it is hypothesized that positive emotions gained from tourism experiences positively impact social bonding and other-centered orientations.

Positive emotions gained during a trip positively affect tourist relatedness needs fulfillment during and/or after the trip to a destination.

H6a

The fulfillment of tourists’ relatedness needs mediates the link between positive emotions and psychological well-being.

The experience of positive emotions through tourism activities may contribute to long-term PWB. Fredrickson’s broaden-and-build theory, introduced in 2004, suggests that experiencing positive emotions can help individuals overcome negative emotions and increase their resilience by broadening their thoughts and actions. As a result, this process may progressively foster emotional development and enhance overall mental well-being. (Fredrickson, 2004). Andrews and Withey (1976) also suggest that positive affect is a significant component of subjective well-being. Therefore, it is hypothesized that the positive emotions gained from tourism experiences can contribute to long-term psychological well-being. Hence the following hypothesis is proposed:

Positive emotions experienced during a trip positively influence psychological well-being following the trip.

SDT emphasizes that PWB is achieved by satisfying psychological needs, including autonomy, competence, and relatedness (Ryan and Deci, 2000). The importance of psychological needs in achieving life satisfaction is also evident in consumer studies. Howell et al. (2013) found that the fulfillment of psychological needs has a mediation relationship between income and life satisfaction. Additionally, Hill and Howell (2014) suggest that pro-social spending and well-being can be mediated by psychological needs satisfaction.

In tourism, research indicates that meeting psychological needs through self-determination and connection positively affects an individual’s physical, mental, and social well-being after experiencing different cultures. (Siu et al., 2016). Therefore, based on SDT, the following hypotheses are suggested:

Autonomy needs fulfillment during and/or after a trip to a destination is psychological related to tourist well-being after the trip.

Relatedness needs fulfilment during and/or after a trip to a destination is positively related to psychological well-being after the trip.

Methodology

Measurement

The measurement items for goal congruence were adapted from Hosany (2012). For goal relevance, encompassing the sub-dimensions of goal importance and goal interest, we used items from Ma et al. (2013). A novelty was evaluated with the memorable tourism experience scale by Kim et al. (2012). Positive emotions were assessed using the Destination Emotion Scale developed by Hosany and Gilbert (2010). The psychological needs from the Self-Determination Theory (SDT), including the need for autonomy and relatedness, were measured using the Basic Psychological Needs in Exercise Scale (Wilson et al., 2006), the Need Satisfaction and Frustration Scale (Longo et al., 2016), and the Basic Psychological Needs Scale (Siu et al., 2016). Psychological well-being was measured with two scales: the Subjective Well-being Scale by the British Broadcasting Corporation (Pontin et al., 2013) and the WHOQOL-BREF Scale by the World Health Organization (WHO, 2013).

All items were evaluated using a seven-point Likert scale ranging from “never true” to “always true” or from “strongly disagree” to “strongly agree.” The goal interest variable was measured differently, using a seven-point semantic differential scale with bipolar adjectives at each end. A pre-test was conducted to ensure the research instrument’s clarity, comprehensibility, and relevance. The pre-test involved 14 students, split equally between graduate and undergraduate students from various academic disciplines. Participants completed the draft questionnaire and provided feedback on the overall experience, question clarity, ambiguity, difficulty, and completion time. Their feedback clarified ambiguous questions, content was streamlined, and response scales standardized to improve user-friendliness and align with research objectives.

Data Collection

This quantitative study investigates the impact of positive emotions elicited during a trip on tourists’ well-being post-trip. Focusing on general leisure tourism, the study targeted individuals aged 18 and older who had traveled internationally for leisure with a minimum of three overnight stays in the past year. Data was collected through a convenience sample using an online survey. The online panels, managed by the Centre of Tourism Research in Prince Edward Island (PEI), Canada, included over 20,000 Canadian and U.S. residents who had visited or shown interest in PEI. The survey, distributed over 3 weeks, received 1,047 responses. Initial screening questions ensured participants met the criteria, and 483 qualified responses were retained, with 396 being usable for analysis.

Data Analysis

For the analysis, SPSS and Amos 24 were utilized, employing the maximum likelihood method. The research adhered to a two-step approach. First, the structural model was redefined as a measurement model. Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) was conducted to evaluate the quality of the measures and the extent to which the measured variables accurately represented the underlying constructs (Hair et al., 2010). A second-order CFA was performed on the construct of positive emotions, which includes the three first-order factors: joy, love, and positive surprise (Chen et al., 2005). The model’s fit, as well as its convergent and discriminant validity, were assessed through CFA. Following this, structural equation modeling (SEM) was applied to test the proposed hypotheses.

Kline (2005) suggests using multiple indices to evaluate model fit. The chi-square to degrees of freedom ratio should be less than two (Schreiber et al., 2006). An NFI value greater than 0.90 is considered acceptable. Both TLI and CFI should have a cut-off value of 0.95. An RMSEA value of 0.05 or lower indicates a good fit (Hu and Bentler, 1999). The GFI and AGFI values should range from 0 to 1, with values closer to one indicating better model fit. Values above 0.8 for GFI and AGFI are indicative of a good fit.

Before proceeding with SEM, the measurement models needed to meet validity and reliability criteria. Construct validity was assessed using the measurement model’s convergent and discriminant validity (Hair et al., 2010). To confirm convergent validity, the measurement model’s factor loadings, Average Variance Extracted (AVE), and composite reliability were calculated and reviewed. AVE and the shared variances among constructs were also computed to evaluate discriminant validity.

Results

Profile of the Sample

The sample consisted of approximately equal percentages of male and female respondents. Nearly three-quarters of the participants were married, and most had attained a college education. A significant majority of the participants (83.3%) were from Canada, with the remainder from the United States. Nearly half of the respondents reported trips lasting fewer than 10 days, while almost a third had trips lasting between 11 and 20 days. Most respondents had undertaken between 1 to 10 international trips in the past year. Domestic travel was also prevalent, with 90% of the respondents reporting between 1 to 10 domestic trips within the last year.

Confirmatory Factor Analysis

To evaluate the model fit, CFA was conducted using SPSS Amos 24 (Arbuckle, 2016). Following modifications and re-specifications, the revised measurement model demonstrated a satisfactory fit to the data: χ² = 1270.47, df = 664, χ²/df = 1.91, NFI = 0.91, TLI = 0.95, CFI = 0.96, RMSEA = 0.048, GFI = 0.85, and AGFI = 0.83. Subsequently, the measurement model was evaluated for validity and reliability standards. Table 1 presents the standardized factor loadings, which were all above the threshold of 0.5 (Hair et al., 2010), ranging from 0.62 to 0.96. The Average Variance Extracted (AVE) for the constructs exceeded 0.5, with the lowest AVE at 0.614 (Hair et al., 2010). The composite reliability for all constructs surpassed the recommended threshold of 0.7 (Hair et al., 2010), with the lowest composite reliability at 0.824 (see Table 1). These metrics collectively indicate satisfactory convergent validity for the measurement model. Furthermore, the square root of each construct’s AVE was greater than the correlations between constructs, confirming discriminant validity.

Table 1.

Results of CFA (N = 396).

Variables		Items	Factor loadings	Composite reliability	AVE
Goal congruence		Consistent with what I wanted to achieve	0.62	0.824	0.614
		Important in achieving my goals, needs, or desires	0.88
		Contributed to achieving my personal goals in life	0.82
Goal interest		My trip to the destination was dull – neat	0.88	0.940	0.839
		My trip to the destination was not fun – fun	0.93
		My trip to the destination was unappealing – appealing	0.94
Goal importance		The overall travel experience mattered to me	0.82	0.913	0.725
		The overall travel experience meant a lot to me	0.91
		The overall travel experience was important to me	0.86
		The overall travel experience was relevant to me	0.80
Novelty		My trip to the destination was a once-in-a-lifetime experience	0.86	0.875	0.702
		My trip was very unique	0.91
		This trip was different from previous experiences	0.72
Positive emotions	Joy	I felt a sense of delight	0.88	0.831	0.622
		I felt a sense of enthusiasm	0.86
		I felt a sense of joy	0.91
		I felt a sense of pleasure	0.84
	Love	I felt a sense of affection	0.92
		I felt a sense of caring	0.92
		I felt a sense of love	0.86
	Surprise	I felt a sense of astonishment	0.89
		I felt fascinated	0.83
		I felt a sense of surprise	0.82
Autonomy		I felt free to decide what to do	0.85	0.952	0.834
		I felt free to do things in my way	0.96
		I felt free to decide how I do things	0.95
		I felt free to make my own decision	0.89
Relatedness		I shared a common bond with the people I interacted with	0.83	0.910	0.718
		I got along with the people I interacted with	0.81
		I was connected with the people I interacted with	0.89
		I was emotionally attached to the people I interacted with	0.85
Psychological Well-being		I feel more able to live my life the way I want	0.81	0.946	0.689
		I feel more able to do the things I choose to do	0.80
		I feel more able to grow and develop as a person	0.82
		I feel happier with myself	0.87
		I feel happy with my life achievement	0.77
		I feel more satisfied with myself	0.85
		My life is more meaningful	0.85
		My satisfaction with life in general increased	0.87

To assess the potential for common method bias, Harman’s single-factor test was performed. This involved an exploratory factor analysis of all measured variables to determine if a single factor accounted for the majority of the variance. The findings revealed that the first factor explained 35.2% of the variance, which is below the critical threshold of 50% commonly cited in the literature (Podsakoff et al., 2003). Consequently, it is reasonable to conclude that common method bias is not a significant concern in this dataset.

Structural Model Analysis

Structural equation modeling (SEM) was performed using SPSS Amos 24 to evaluate the proposed hypotheses (Schreiber et al., 2006). The structural model exhibited a satisfactory fit to the data: χ² = 1349.38, df = 677, χ²/df = 1.993, NFI = 0.91, TLI = 0.95, CFI = 0.95, RMSEA = 0.05, GFI = 0.84, and AGFI = 0.82. Figure 1 present the path analysis results, showing R² and standardized path coefficients. The R² values indicate that the model accounts for 64.8% of the variance in positive emotions, 9.3% in autonomy, 38.3% in relatedness, and 36.2% in overall well-being.

Path coefficients illustrate the strength of relationships between constructs. The results reveal that all proposed hypotheses are statistically significant and directionally supported (see Figure 1). Among the four antecedents of positive emotions, goal congruence has the highest path coefficient (β = 0.34, ρ < 0.001), followed by novelty (β = 0.32, ρ < 0.001), goal importance (β = 0.26, ρ < 0.001), and goal interest (β = 0.15, ρ < 0.001). The findings also show that the relationship between positive emotions and relatedness (β = 0.62, ρ < 0.001) is twice as strong as the relationship between positive emotions and autonomy (β = 0.31, ρ < 0.001). Additionally, the two needs fulfillment, autonomy, and relatedness, are weaker predictors of well-being than positive emotions but are still statistically significant at the 0.05 level. The effects of autonomy (β = 0.10) and relatedness (β = 0.12) on well-being are comparable.

Hypotheses 5a and 6a suggest that autonomy and relatedness act as mediators between positive emotions and well-being. To determine if the fulfillment of these psychological needs significantly mediates this relationship, we conducted an analysis of indirect effects. Following the framework provided by Baron and Kenny (1986), we employed four steps to establish mediation: (a) identifying a significant relationship between positive emotions (predictor variable) and psychological well-being (outcome); (b) confirming that positive emotions are positively associated with the fulfillment of both autonomy and relatedness (mediators); (c) demonstrating that the fulfillment of autonomy and relatedness is positively related to psychological well-being; and (d) showing that the strength of the relationship between positive emotions and well-being is reduced when autonomy and relatedness are included in the model, yet remains greater than zero.

We utilized a bootstrap procedure with 500 samples and a 95% bias-corrected confidence interval to test the significance of these mediating effects. The results, as presented in Table 2, indicate that positive emotions have a significant direct effect on well-being and also exert a significant indirect effect on well-being through the mediators of autonomy and relatedness.

Table 2.

The direct and indirect effect.

Hypothesis	Mediation
Hypothesis	Standardized direct effect	Standardized indirect effect	Standardized total effect	Result
H5a: Positive emotions $\to$ Autonomy $\to$ PWB	0.48***	0.36*	0.52*	Partially mediated
H6a: Positive emotions $\to$ Relatedness $\to$ PWB	0.48***	0.087*	0.58*	Partially mediated

Note. PWB = Psychological well-being. *** statistically significant at $ρ < 0.001$ . * statistically significant at $ρ < 0.05$ .

Discussion

This study breaks ground through the development of a mediation model that incorporates aspects from both the Cognitive Appraisal Theory (CAT) and Self-Determination Theory (SDT) models. The proposed model tests how positive emotions elicited from appraisals of the tourism experience during a trip can impact tourist well-being after the trip through the fulfillment of psychological needs (Figure 1). An online survey was conducted with recent tourists to validate the input mediator variables used to predict the dependent variable of psychological well-being. The survey collected data on the tourists’ appraisals of the tourism experience, psychological needs satisfaction, positive emotions, and psychological well-being.

The study’s results demonstrate that positive emotions experienced during tourism activities significantly impact fulfilling the needs for autonomy, relatedness, and well-being. Specifically, the findings support the idea that autonomy and relatedness needs mediate the relationship between positive emotions and well-being. In other words, when tourists perceive their trip as a positive experience and experience emotions such as joy, love, and surprise, they are more likely to feel a sense of autonomy and relatedness, which, in turn, enhances their psychological well-being post-trip.

The study’s first four hypotheses propose that the appraisal of goal congruence, goal interest, goal importance, and novelty create positive emotions, and the study’s results support these hypotheses. This finding confirms the validity of the Cognitive Appraisal Theory’s (CAT) application to tourism, as established by previous research (Choi and Choi, 2019; Manthiou et al., 2017). The study shows that tourists who perceive their experience as relevant and congruent with their goals and interests and as a positively surprising experience are more likely to have positive emotions (Ma et al., 2013; Manthiou et al., 2017). Specifically, goal congruence was the most important determinant of positive emotions, as tourists evaluate whether their trip experience aligns with their motivations, goals, or desires at the end of the trip (Hosany, 2012; Manthiou et al., 2017). This finding is consistent with previous research on tourism experiences (Choi and Choi, 2019; Hosany, 2012; Manthiou et al., 2017).

Furthermore, novelty was the second most important determinant of positive emotions, consistent with Hosany’s (2012) study showing that the appraisal of novelty produces the emotion of surprise. Tourists often seek new and novel experiences, and the degree of novelty in the experience determines how the tourist perceives the destination (Hosany, 2012; Manthiou et al., 2017). Destinations should strive to provide an experience that evokes feelings of novelty and excitement as it can lead to a more positive overall impression (Hosany, 2012; Ma et al., 2013; Manthiou et al., 2017).

This study has found that the importance of goal relevance in predicting positive emotions is relatively low, with goal importance having a slightly stronger impact than goal interest. However, goal relevance still plays a role in eliciting positive emotions, particularly when perceived as congruent with the tourist’s needs. Thus, when tourists perceive the experience as relevant to their needs under goal congruence, it is likely to generate strong positive emotions. These findings support the broader Mediation Model by validating the connection between CAT and SDT through supporting hypotheses 5a and 6a.

Additionally, this study supports the role of psychological needs fulfillment in mediating the relationship between positive emotions and well-being. The results indicate that tourists who experience positive emotions during a trip are more likely to exercise autonomy and engage in meaningful social bonding, ultimately enhancing their well-being. This supports hypotheses eight and 9, as well as the SDT framework, demonstrating that the fulfillment of psychological needs is positively associated with tourists’ well-being, even in the context of tourism. Tourism provides a unique opportunity for self-improvement and self-transcendence, allowing tourists to exercise autonomy and make decisions that align with their values and needs (Carter and Gilovich, 2012; Kay Smith and Diekmann, 2017).

The study found that reflecting on tourism experiences can improve bonding with travel partners and enhance relationships, ultimately positively affecting tourists’ well-being. Such findings are consistent with studies of cultural consumption that demonstrate positive relationships between autonomy and relatedness, needs fulfillment, and well-being (Siu et al., 2016). These results suggest that the tourism experience positively affects well-being either directly through positive emotions or indirectly through needs fulfillment of autonomy and relatedness. The model explains 36.2% of the variance in psychological well-being, supporting the broaden-and-build theory (Fredrickson, 2004) that positive emotions help people cultivate momentary thought-action repertoires and build resilience in the face of adversity.

However, the study also found that the effect of positive emotions on autonomy needs fulfillment is weaker than relatedness needs fulfillment, which may be due to tourists not feeling entirely autonomous during and/or after a trip. Travelling with companions may increase tourists’ sense of belongingness but may also limit their autonomy in decision-making, ultimately affecting their well-being after the trip (Kirillova and Lehto, 2015). Nonetheless, the study supports the connection between positive emotions from a trip and more autonomous behavior both during and after the trip. The positive upward spiral helps tourists cope with negative emotions and encourages them to savor their loved ones or become autonomous (Fredrickson, 2004), ultimately enhancing their well-being.

Implications &Limitations

Theoretical Implications

The intricate relationship between tourism and well-being has been a topic of significant interest and complexity, as reflected in past studies (Kay Smith and Diekmann, 2017; Hitt et al., 1998; Su et al., 2022). Understanding this relationship has been challenging due to the personal interpretation of tourism experiences and insufficient introspection. The existing theories—CAT and SDT—possess notable predictive potential, yet their application in tourism has been sporadic and underutilized (Kim, 2021; Uysal et al., 2016; Buzinde, 2020).

The significance of this study lies in its capacity to bridge the existing gaps in the research landscape. By integrating CAT and SDT into a unified input/output model, we take a crucial leap towards unlocking how tourism experiences contribute to well-being. The model delineates that the gratification of psychological needs for autonomy and relatedness serves as a mediator in the relationship between positive emotions and tourist well-being. This finding not only confirms the links between the two theories but also provides a groundbreaking mediation model that simplifies the mental processes leading to a defined well-being outcome.

This model emerges as a potent tool for tourists and marketers alike, as it provides an efficient mechanism to assess the impact of their experiences. Our research findings corroborate Uysal et al.'s (2016) assertion that tourism experiences significantly influence tourists’ well-being. As tourists commonly experience positive emotions during their trips, this invariably contributes to their well-being enhancement.

By blending the CAT and SDT models, we glean a more detailed understanding of how positive emotions propel well-being through the satisfaction of autonomy and relatedness needs. Hence, the importance of this study cannot be overstated, as it yields invaluable insights into the influence of tourism experiences on well-being. It successfully amalgamates well-established psychological theories into a comprehensive model, thereby underlining the essential role of meeting the psychological needs for autonomy and relatedness in augmenting tourist well-being. This breakthrough in understanding the psychology of tourist well-being carries profound implications for both academic understanding and practical application in the tourism industry.

Managerial Implications for Destination Marketers

Prior research has highlighted the significance of understanding tourist objectives and their penchant for novelty-seeking behavior in eliciting positive emotional responses. The present study builds on these theories and offers critical insights for destination marketers on key focus areas. By recognizing the factors that warrant attention, marketers can refine and tailor their strategies to evoke positive emotions in customers, which naturally lead to increased patronage. The cognitive appraisal process is instrumental in this domain. It equips destination marketers with the means to craft strategies that not only meet, but surpass tourists’ expectations, consequently enhancing well-being.

Our research illuminates how tourists evaluate goal congruence, goal relevance (encompassing goal interest and importance), and novelty, leading to positive emotions such as joy, love, and positive surprise. This refined understanding permits companies to allocate their marketing resources more efficiently, concentrating on these determinants. Of these, goal congruence and novelty were identified as paramount. Hence, for destination marketers, an in-depth comprehension of their customers’ aspirations and tendencies is crucial. Tailoring attractions and experiences to these aspirations is pivotal for heightened customer satisfaction. Investing in comprehensive market research to ascertain the goals of the target demographic is essential. Destination marketers should emphasize understanding goal congruence factors, which pertain to how seamlessly a destination/activity aligns with a tourist’s objectives. It is fundamental to recognize which products and experiences resonate with the identified target audiences. When new offerings are conceptualized to attract fresh clientele, a rigorous evaluation of the prospective market is requisite.

For example, adventure enthusiasts would appreciate activities stimulating their adrenaline, such as bungee jumping or skydiving. Conversely, those searching for tranquility might prefer calming experiences like spa retreats or yoga sessions. If a tourist’s primary objective is to immerse themselves in local culture, marketers can accentuate the alignment by offering cultural immersion experiences, like local culinary trails or traditional handicraft workshops.

Furthermore, marketing strategies should accentuate goal relevance factors, reflecting what resonates with their target audience. Goal relevance examines the significance a goal possesses for an individual. If sustainability is a cherished value among the target group, marketers should emphasize their sustainable practices, illustrating how opting for their destination would be congruent with the tourist’s values. Novelty is another dimension meriting keen attention. It pertains to the distinctiveness of an experience, captivating potential tourists’ interest. To remain competitive, marketers must incessantly innovate, offering fresh experiences while emphasizing their uniqueness. For instance, if a unique night safari experience is launched at a wildlife resort, its one-of-a-kind nature should be the focal point of marketing, spotlighting the unparalleled chance to view nocturnal wildlife.

Enhancing customer experiences with suggested services for each tourist makes it feasible to evoke positive emotional reactions. Novel crafting experiences, in line with goals and pertinent, result in positive emotional responses. Such tailored experiences can catalyze increased satisfaction, engender loyalty, and foster organic promotion, culminating in beneficial outcomes for tourists and destination marketers.

Limitations and Future Research Directions

This study had several limitations that warrant attention. First, generalizations of study results may be limited because of the samples. The samples include tourists living in North America, particularly in Canada and the U.S. Respondents are mostly well-educated, retired, and elderly tourists 55 or older. Second, the respondents may have had a retrospective impact bias. That is, respondents may overestimate the positive emotions felt during vacations. Research shows that people can retrieve their past emotional experiences quite accurately, and measures were taken in designing the questionnaire to help them recall their experiences as vividly as possible.

Finally, the mediation model does not consider the occurrence of hedonic adaptation after the trip. Hedonic adaptation happens as people return to their established set-point of well-being before major life events, such as a holiday trip. The thrill and joy of a vacation may fade over time. Hence, a fadeout effect of happiness after a positive life event, although people who continue to derive positive emotions from positive life events are more likely to sustain their sense of well-being.

Future research can build upon this study by exploring the connection between various psychological needs and their contribution to well-being within the context of tourism. Considering the dynamic nature of emotions, future studies should research deeper into the various components of positive emotion. This will provide a more comprehensive understanding of their impact on tourism experiences and subsequent effects on psychological well-being. These studies could aim to measure tourist emotions in real-time. Moreover, research should focus on identifying variables linking the CAT and SDT models. This would foster a better understanding of the relationship between well-being and tourism.

Footnotes

Declaration of conflicting interests

The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Funding

The author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

ORCID iD

Hwansuk Chris Choi

Author biographies

Youjia Lee is an International Scholarships Advisor at the University of Toronto. She holds an MSc from the School of Hospitality, Food and Tourism Management at the University of Guelph. With over six years in international student services, she specializes in intercultural engagement, academic advising, and program development.

Dr. Sharon Pang is an Assistant Professor at National Chi Nan University with academic credentials from The Hong Kong Polytechnic University (Doctorate). Her expertise spans specialty coffee and whisky, with professional certifications in both fields. Dr. Pang's research focuses on tourist behavior and psychology, specialty coffee and whisky consumption patterns, website design, and the tourism industry's environmental impacts.

Dr. HS Chris Choi, an expert in sustainable tourism and hospitality management, is a Professor at the University of Guelph. Originally from Seoul, Korea, he holds a Ph.D. in Tourism Marketing from Texas A&M University. Dr. Choi has significantly influenced tourism policy and practice globally with over 300 publications and $4 million in research funding. A dedicated mentor, he actively supports graduate students’ academic growth and advocates for the industry's future through his research and teaching.

Michael Yu is a PhD candidate in the Services Management program at the University of Guelph. His research interests include consumer behavior in the restaurant sector, tipping behavior, and cannabis applications in hospitality and tourism.

Dr. Ho-Young Lee is a sessional lecturer at Hanyang University and holds a Ph.D. in Hospitality, Tourism, and Retail Management from Texas Tech University. Dr. Lee's research focuses on tourist behavior, mainly tourists' non-purchase intentions in the sharing economy, including ride-sourcing services and peer-to-peer accommodation. He has presented his work at various international conferences and has several ongoing publications in tourism-related journals.

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