Transforming Environmental Concern into Adoption of Energy Efficient Air Conditioners: A Comparative View of TPB & DOI Models

Abstract

Background

The rising demand for energy in India due to tropical weather conditions, rising income levels and rapid urbanization has caused an increase in buying and use of air conditioners. Air conditioners are energy guzzlers. Strangely, although there is a high consideration for use of energy efficient air conditioners and high concern for the environment, yet the adoption of these appliances is considerably less, leading to an energy efficiency gap.

Focus of the Article

The present study aims to fulfill the energy efficiency gap by comparing the influence of psychological factors (expanded Theory of planned behavior (TPB) model) with technical factors (Diffusion of innovation (DOI) model) on the intention to purchase energy efficient air conditioners. The study also compares serial mediating effects of expanded TPB constructs and DOI constructs to transform environmental concern into purchase behavior towards energy efficient air conditioners.

Research Questions

The study attempts to answer the research questions, how do psychological factors influence purchase intention towards energy efficient air conditioners, how do technical factors influence purchase intention towards energy efficient air conditioners, and what extent, psychological and technical factors, carry the influence of environmental concern on purchase behavior towards energy efficient air conditioners? The hypotheses stipulate that the psychological factors and the technical factors have a significant influence on intention. The study also compares the sequential mediation of psychological and technical factors that carry the effect of environmental concern on purchase behavior towards energy efficient air conditioners.

Methods

A quantitative descriptive study was carried out by distributing a self-administered questionnaire within three regions: Delhi & NCR, Punjab and Tri-city. The data collected from 424 respondents have been analysed using AMOS 23.0. Path analysis has been used to test the direct relationship of psychological and technical factors on purchase intention towards energy efficient air conditioners. Further, serial mediating effects were analysed using bias-corrected bootstrapping analysis in AMOS 23.0.

Results

Both psychological factors and technical factors (except trialability) significantly influence purchase intention towards energy efficient air conditioners. However, the psychological factors have been found relatively more influential than technical factors. Further, psychological factors sequentially mediate the effect of environmental concern on purchase behavior, whereas technical factors do not mediate.

Importance to Social Marketing Field

Social marketing practitioners can promote the adoption of energy efficient air conditioners by designing interventions based on extended TPB model to transform environmental concern into purchase behavior. The study will contribute towards bridging the energy efficiency gap, considering the infirm impact of current commercial marketing campaigns focusing solely on technical aspects.

Recommendations for Research/Practice

The present study manifests that integrated marketing communication based on both the types of TPB and DOI constructs will put synergetic impact on purchase intention.

Limitations

The context of the study is limited in terms of one product, regions and households covered. Future studies can be carried out with larger samples, multiple products, and wider regions to generalise the study’s findings in situations involving pro-environmental purchase behavior.

Keywords

Innovation-diffusion theory theory of planned behavior innovative characteristics energy efficient adoption intention

Introduction

In recent years, environmental issues like global warming, ozone layer loss, natural resource scarcity, and air pollution have increased due to increased human activity (Mateus et al., 2023). Energy is vital for economic development and human welfare. The residential sector is one of the fastest-growing sectors in India due to its large population base, rising income level and rapid urbanization. Increased buying of appliances including air conditioners for the sake of comfort and convenience, has led to an increase in energy consumption in the residential sector. It has been estimated that demand for energy consumption in the residential sector will reach 646-758 Terawatt hour (TwH) in 2030 (Bureau of Energy Efficiency, 2021). The International Energy Agency (IEA, 2019) has declared energy efficiency a major strategic goal so as to ensure less emissions of greenhouse gases, less pollution, and improved energy security (Su, 2022). According to the report of the Bureau of Energy Efficiency (2021), the Standards and Labelling (S&L) programme resulted in estimated savings of 70.57 billion units (BU) of electricity, a reduction of 57.16 million tonnes (MN) of carbon dioxide emissions, and annual monetary savings of Indian Rupee (INR) 423.40 billion during Financial year (FY) 2021–22 as a result of interventions carried out during 2018-22. The adoption of energy efficient appliances not only leads to the cost savings, but also benefits the environment. Hence, there is a larger social good in the adoption of energy efficient appliances.

A survey conducted across four two-tier Indian cities reveals that among the potential household consumers, more than seventy percent of the households wanted to buy high-star (four-five stars) labelled air conditioners (energy efficient). However only fourteen percent of them actually purchased four-five stars labelled air conditioner (Bhasin et al., 2020). As per Greendex (2014), Indian consumers are relatively more concerned towards the environment as compared to the consumers of other countries, such as Brazil, America, and Canada. However, such concerns and awareness do not turn entirely into behavior. This discrepancy between desire and purchase decision leads to an energy efficient gap (Bhasin et al., 2020).

Considering the fact that despite high environmental concern, the market penetration of these appliances is very low. Previous research also indicates a gap between environmental concern and eco-friendly or green purchasing decisions (Hossain et al., 2022). Past studies suggest that environmental concern do not directly influence particular behavior (Hines et al., 1987). Instead, it would indirectly impact intention through specific beliefs and attitudes (Bamberg, 2003). Researchers have found that a consumer’s consumption pattern is multi-dimensional and depends upon various factors, such as psychological, technical and situational factors (Chander et al., 2023).

Social marketing helps in deciding what behaviors to maintain or influence and how to go about it. The present study simultaneously considers and compares socio-psychological determinants and social diffusion aspects to establish their relative effectiveness with respect to behavior change towards energy efficient air conditioners.

The theory of planned behavior (TPB) (Ajzen, 1991) is the most widely used theory that delves into psychological and social aspects influencing consumer’s intentions and behavior (Acikgoz et al., 2023). TPB has been extensively used to study the adoption of behaviors, such as, anti- littering behavior (Singh & Kaur, 2021), binge drinking quitting intention (Machaka-mare et al., 2023), preventive sexual behaviors (Ayikwa et al., 2020) and energy efficient appliances (Tan et al., 2017). Therefore, the present study identified the following research question:

RQ1- How do psychological factors (attitude, subjective norms, perceived behavioral control and personal norms) influence purchase intention towards energy efficient air conditioners?

Diffusion of innovation theory (DOI) is a well-known theory that explains innovation characteristics and how these characteristics influence user’s adoption of the new technology (Chander et al., 2023). The technical factors or perceived innovation characteristics are particularly important in understanding how consumers perceive the innovation and its characteristics (Jansson, 2011). DOI emphasizes technical aspects, i.e., perceived features of technology such as, relative advantage, compatibility, complexity, observability and trialability (Acikgoz et al., 2023). Roger’s innovation diffusion framework has also been used to predict the intention in adopting solar energy (Pathania et al., 2017) and Fintech (Koloseni & Mandari, 2024). Some researchers have integrated TPB and DOI to investigate the adoption of smart watches (Acikgoz et al., 2023) and green appliances (Dilotsotlhe, 2021). Therefore, the present study identified the following research question:

RQ2 How do technical factors (relative advantage, compatibility, complexity, observability and trialability) influence purchase intention towards energy efficient air conditioners?

Environmental psychology examines the dynamic interplay between the natural and built environment, and human behavior (Moser & Uzzell, 2003). It often employs theories like the Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB), Norm Activation Model (NAM), and Value-Belief-Norm Theory (VBN) to understand green consumer behavior, with a focus on values, attitudes, norms, and beliefs (Jansson, 2011). However, its application to innovation adoption remains limited. Jansson (2011) combined DOI and VBN theories to identify factors that drive or hinder eco-innovation adoption. There are negligible studies relating to pro-environmental behavior that have studied and examined DOI and TPB models in a comparative manner, especially in the context of energy efficient appliances. In other words, the gaps in the literature have been found in terms of relative degree of influence of socio-psychological determinants and social diffusion aspects of adopting innovative products. Therefore, there is a need to investigate what factors to what extent help in translating environmental concern into purchase behavior towards energy efficient air conditioners. Therefore, the present study attempts to answer the following research question:

RQ3 What extent, psychological and technical factors, carry the influence of environmental concern on purchase behavior towards energy efficient air conditioners?

The present study has been carried out with an aim to influence purchase behavior in terms of encouraging (persuading) the voluntary adoption of energy efficient air conditioners. The promotional campaigns of these appliances by and large are based on technical aspects (Ahmad et al., 2023; Kapoor & Dwivedi, 2020). In view of larger social good in the adoption of energy efficient air conditioners, it is imperative to go beyond the commercial marketing. Low adoption of energy efficient appliances reveals inadequate impact of current interventions based on DOI considerations. Considering significant prevalence of environmental concern, the social marketing may play a vital role in the persuasion of consumers to voluntary adopt energy efficient air conditioners, provided the research sets the premises for designing appropriate interventions. Therefore, this study compares DOI model with expanded TPB model so as to test the comparative robustness of these models for fulfilling value-action gap. The findings of the study will act as a premise for developing suitable marketing interventions including scope for social marketing practitioners. It was evident from the research that marketing interventions based on theoretical frameworks are more effective in changing behavior than those not based on theoretical frameworks (Kaur & Singh, 2023). The social marketing interventions may catalyze the voluntary adoption of energy efficient air conditioners. The present study is an attempt to examine the adoption of energy efficient air conditioners through a multidimensional lens.

Theoretical Background

Social marketing is “a process that applies marketing principles and techniques to create, communicate, and deliver value in order to influence target audience behaviors that benefit society as well as the target audience” (Kotler & Lee, 2020). In the context of social marketing, the product refers to social proposition that connects the desired behavior with the benefits accrued to the target adopters and others. Product mix refers to the associated benefits of using behavior (Sheau-Ting et al., 2013). In the case of energy efficient appliances, the product mix refers to the use of energy efficient appliances that provide dual benefits; one less spending on electricity bills, and second environmental benefits due to less carbon emissions. Social marketing strives for sustainable behavioral change and motivates people to perform socially desirable behavior (Andreasen, 1994). The purchase of energy efficient appliances can be described as pro-environmental behavior that has both direct and indirect effects on the environment. The present study considers both theory of planned behavior (TPB) (Ajzen, 1991)and the diffusion of innovation theory (DOI) (Rogers, 2003) because these two main theories have been extensively used to predict consumer’s behavior and explain adoption of a new product.

Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB)

The theory of planned behavior is one of the most influential works for predicting human social behavior (Acikgoz et al., 2023). However, there are certain limitations. TPB does not address influence of environmental concern that may play a critical role in influencing TPB factors towards desired behavior. Although the usefulness of TPB in explaining variance has been validated through much empirical research, yet a significant proportion of variance remains unexplained. Therefore, there is a need to include additional factors to increase its predictive power (Kaiser, 2006). TPB considers that attitude remains stable, but in reality attitude may also change with time (MacVaugh & Schiavone, 2010). Personal norms provide a sense of moral duty or responsibility to act in a particular environmentally friendly manner (Onel, 2017). The present study incorporates an additional construct ‘personal norms’, along with attitude, subjective norms, perceived behavioral control, and purchase intention.

Attitude

Attitude refers to the consumer’s beliefs about the advantages and disadvantages of a given acceptance behavior (Fiandari et al., 2024). An attitude that reflects positive value will find its acceptance by the group due to positive perception regarding specific behavior (Fiandari et al., 2024). Attitude refers to “a learned predisposition to behave in a consistently favorable or unfavorable way toward a given object” (Schiffman & Wisenblit, 2015). Therefore, the study proposed the following hypothesis:

H1- Attitude has a positive influence on intention to purchase energy efficient air conditioners.

Subjective Norms

Subjective norms refer to perceived social pressure to engage in or refrain from behavior (Ajzen, 1991). Subjective norms consist of two components: injunctive norms and descriptive norms. Injunctive norms refer to whether social circle approves or disapproves the behavior and descriptive norms refer to ‘providing evidence as to what is likely to be an effective and adaptive action’ (Niemiec et al., 2020). Descriptive norms serve as ‘social proof’, when behavior is adopted by majority and therefore, it leads to personally advantageous actions (Jacobson et al., 2021). Therefore, the study proposed the following hypothesis:

H2- Subjective norms have a positive influence on intention to purchase energy efficient air conditioners.

Perceived Behavioral Control (PBC)

Perceived behavioral control refers to an individual’s perception regarding how easy or difficult is performing a specific behavior, which is determined by individual’s means and opportunities to perform the behavior (Ajzen, 1991). PBC is evaluated by factors that facilitate or impede the performance of the behavior. These factors include both internal (information, personal deficiencies, skills, abilities, emotions) and external (opportunities, dependence on others, physical constraints) control factors (Conner, 2020). Therefore, the study proposed the following hypothesis:

H3- Perceived behavioral control has positive influence on intention to purchase energy efficient air conditioners.

Personal Norms

Personal norms refer to a person’s intrinsic motivation and sense of duty that motivates them to take action. They are characterised as the degree to which an individual feels morally obligated to carry out a particular action (Onel, 2017; Schwartz, 1977). Individual’s reasoning is influenced by their beliefs and values, as explained by Behavior Reasoning Theory (BRT) (Asif et al., 2023). According to the value-belief-norm theory, consumers are usually motivated by their values and beliefs that serve as reasons for their actions (Schwartz, 1977). People’s expected behavior can be directly linked to how they interpret their value orientation. Research has also shown that consumers will adopt things faster, if they believe that these align with their beliefs or are compatible with them (Asif et al., 2023). Therefore, the study proposed the following hypothesis:

H4- Personal norms have a positive influence on intention to purchase energy efficient air conditioners.

Diffusion of Innovation Theory

The innovation characteristics that affect the adoption of innovation products/services include (a) relative advantage, (b) compatibility, (c) complexity, (d) observability and (e) trialability (Rogers, 2010). There are certain limitations of Innovation characteristics in diverse cultural contexts. The relevance of innovation characteristics may vary across different situations that might make their general applicability challenging. For instance, trialability may be crucial for software or electric vehicles, but less relevant for appliances (Dilotsotlhe, 2021). DOI theory emphasizes maximizing utility and does not consider socio-psychological orientation and social adoption (MacVaugh & Schiavone, 2010).

Relative Advantage

Relative advantage is the extent to which a specific user’s believes that an innovation is superior to the idea or practice it replaces (Rogers, 2003). It is frequently determined in terms of social prestige, economic profitability, time, convenience, satisfaction, effort savings and decrease of discomfort (Dilotsotlhe, 2021). Rogers (2003) asserts that greater the perceived relative advantage and perceived usefulness, higher will be the rate of its adoption (Bakkabulindi, 2014). Energy efficient appliances are usually cost-effective in the long run, save electricity costs, and provide comfort to the potential adopters. Therefore, the study proposed the following hypothesis:

H5- Relative advantage has a positive influence on intention to purchase energy efficient air conditioners.

Compatibility

Compatibility has been defined as “the degree to which an innovation is perceived as consistent with the existing values, past experiences, and needs of potential adopters” (Rogers, 2003). An innovation may be compatible with (a) socio-cultural beliefs, (b) previously introduced ideas and (c) the consumer’s needs for innovations (Maria, 2023). Innovations compatible with norms, values and everyday life of individuals will be adopted more rapidly than incompatible ones (Dilotsotlhe, 2021). Therefore, the study proposed the following hypothesis:

H6- Compatibility has a positive influence on intention to purchase energy efficient air conditioners.

Complexity

Complexity is “the degree to which an innovation is perceived relatively difficult to understand and use” (Rogers, 2003). According to Rogers (2003), if an innovation technology is more complex than the existing ones, it won’t be adopted by individuals or decision-making units. When consumers have knowledge about the innovation, or possess related skills required to use it, or find ease of use, they are more attracted to innovation (Dilotsotlhe, 2021). Therefore, the study proposed the following hypothesis:

H7- Complexity has a negative influence on intention to purchase energy efficient air conditioners.

Observability

Observability refers to ‘the extent to which the outcomes of an innovation are noticeable to others’ (Rogers, 2003). Observability may alternatively be defined as an innovation’s perceived communicability or ‘describability’ (Bakkabulindi, 2014). Observability is usually described in terms of the degree to which an innovation is visible in society and its expected benefits can be observed and shared. This indicates that there is a very high chance of adopting a product, when they observe the advantages enjoyed by important others, close friends, family, and other individuals they know and trust. Observability plays a crucial role in the adoption because it raises awareness about newness in the product (Koloseni & Mandari, 2024), and consumers can see the consequences of its use by others. The consumers make judgements through viewing and word of mouth of people having experience of using it (Ahmad et al., 2023). Therefore, the study proposed the following hypothesis:

H8- Observability has a positive influence on intention to purchase energy efficient air conditioners.

Trialability

Trialability refers to the extent of evaluating and testing a new innovation before its actual adoption (Maria, 2023). The potential adopters are more likely to adopt an innovation, when prospective users can try an idea or innovation in small doses and adopt an innovation gradually (Rogers, 2010). Spyridaki et al. (2020)found that first trials help in facilitating the adoption of energy efficient technologies by Greek households. Therefore, the study proposed the following hypothesis:

H9- Trialability has a positive influence on intention to purchase energy efficient air conditioners.

Purchase Intention

Purchase intention refers to the willingness of an individual to perform a given behavior. It is the most immediate antecedent of the behavior (Ajzen, 1991). When a consumer has stronger intent to purchase energy efficient appliances, there will be higher engagement in the purchase behavior (Hossain et al., 2022).

Translating Environmental Concern Into Purchase Behavior Through Psychological Constructs

Environmental concern is “the degree to which people are aware of problems regarding the environment and support efforts to solve them and or indicate the willingness to contribute personally to their solution” (Dunlap & Jones., 2002). When a person is more concerned towards the environment, the stronger will be their intention to perform specific environment-friendly behavior (Hossain et al., 2022). However, many studies did not find the direct influence of environmental concern on intention and purchase behavior (Hines et al., 1987; Hossain et al., 2022; Kaur et al., 2023). Ajzen and Fishbein (1980) revealed that a general attitude, such as environmental concern, affects a specific behavior indirectly rather than directly. They further proposed that an individual’s attitude, subjective norm, and perceived behavioral control are determined by their general attitude through situation-specific behavioral, normative, and control beliefs. An individual will engage in a pro environmental behavior, when they feel moral obligation to behave responsibly (Onel, 2017). Therefore, the study proposed the following hypothesis:

H10- Psychological factors ((a) Attitude (b) subjective norms (c) perceived behavioral control (d) personal norms) and purchase intention sequentially mediate the effect of environmental concern on purchase behavior towards energy efficient air conditioners (Figure 1).

Figure 1.

Psychological factors and purchase intention sequentially mediate the effect of environmental concern on purchase behavior towards energy efficient air conditioners

Translating Environmental Concern Into Purchase Behavior Through Technical Constructs

Ozaki (2011) revealed the overlapping of DOI and TPB theories for consumer decision-making in the context of adopting green electricity. The diffusion of innovation theory and cognitive behavioral theory have factors with different emphases, yet overlapping in some aspects in their influence on adoption decisions (Ozaki, 2011). According to Ozaki (2011), perceived relative advantage of diffusion of innovation theory overlaps with attitude (behavioral beliefs) of theory of planned behavior. Consumers see the benefit (relative advantage) and positive consequences (attitude) of adopting energy efficient air conditioners. Consumers perceive social pressure (subjective norms) to purchase energy efficient air conditioners and observe others adopt them. This indicates the overlapping between observability and subjective norms.

According to Schwartz (1977), norm activation will happen, when consumers are aware of what is happening, understand the consequences of their actions on the environment, and they feel responsible for behaving in an environment-friendly manner. When a consumer thinks that energy efficient air conditioners are compatible with their existing values, norms, needs, wants and past experiences, they will eventually adopt the product. This is how compatibility overlaps with personal norms and a sense of responsibility (Ozaki, 2011). Consumers think that they can pay even more to purchase energy efficient air conditioners and such other products that are easy to use and comprehend. Hence, control beliefs or perceived behavioral control overlap with complexity (Ozaki, 2011). On the basis of the above literature, the overlapping of the diffusion of innovation theory (DOI) and the theory of planned behavior (TPB) can be established as presented in Table 1.

Table 1.

Overlapping Between Diffusion of Innovation Theory and Expanded Theory of Planned Behavior

Diffusion of innovation theory	Theory of planned behavior
Innovation characteristics	TPB + personal norms
Relative advantage	Attitude (behavioral belief)
Compatibility	Personal norms (normative belief)
Complexity	Perceived behavioral control (control belief)
Observability	Subjective norms (normative belief)
Trialability	---------------------

In view of overlapping between TPB and DOI constructs, the study proposed the following hypothesis:

H11- Technical constructs ((a) Relative advantage (b) observability (c) complexity (d) compatibility) and purchase intention sequentially mediate the effect of environmental concern on purchase behavior towards energy efficient air conditioners (Figure 2).

Figure 2.

Technical constructs and purchase intention sequentially mediate the effect of environmental concern on purchase behavior towards energy efficient air conditioners

Research Methodology

Sampling and Sample Size Determination

The target respondents of the study were the household consumers who had either purchased energy efficient air conditioners in past six months or were likely to buy very shortly in the three specified regions (Delhi & NCR, Punjab and Tri-city). The present study calculated sample size using ‘Raosoft sample size calculator’. The minimum sample size of 385 was estimated with a five percent margin error and ninety-five percent confidence interval.

Data Collection Procedure

Initially, 100 dealers including 45 dealer stores in Delhi and NCR, 35 in Punjab, and 20 in Chandigarh were randomly selected. The contact details of actual buyers and potential buyers were obtained from the dealers. Then, respondents were randomly chosen using an online random number generator based on the information obtained from the dealers. They were contacted via telephone or email to seek their consent for participation in the study. An instrument was sent through a Google form link to those respondents who agreed to participate in the study. A reminder call was made to respondents who didn’t fill the form in the first month. Some respondents, who were not tech-savvy, were provided a hard copy of the instrument. The present study ensured the confidentiality and voluntary participation from the respondents during the data collection process. Based upon respondent’s consent, the final sample included 424 respondents from three different regions. Out of 424 respondents, 280 respondents had already purchased energy efficient air conditioners and 144 respondents were yet to purchase. The demographic profile of the respondents has been presented in Table 2.

Table 2.

Demographic Profile of the Respondents

Characteristics	Sample
Characteristics	Number (N = 424)	Percentage (%)
Gender
Male	228	53.8
Female	196	46.2
Age (in years)
18-35	199	46.9
35-50	166	39.2
Above 50	59	13.9
Education
High school or less	57	13.4
Graduation	136	32.1
Post-graduation and above	231	54.5
Household income (per annum)
Upto Rs 5, 00,000	73	17.2
Rs 5,00,000 to Rs 10,00 000	141	33.3
Above Rs 10,00,000	210	49.5
Occupation
Student	83	19.6
Business owner	80	18.9
Homemaker	53	12.5
Salaried	191	45.0
Others	17	4.0
Number of occupants
1-3	193	45.5
4-6	220	51.9
More than 7	11	2.6
Areas
Delhi & NCR	174	41.1
Punjab	143	33.7
Tri-city	107	25.2

Pilot Study

The questionnaire was pretested on 50 respondents. To improve the questionnaire’s clarity, certain modifications were made to the measuring tool in response to feedback from the participants and experts in the pilot study. It has been found that the measurement items supporting the proposed scales are valid and reliable.

Non-response Bias

In the present study, those who completed the questionnaire and returned it within a month were referred to as early respondents, while those who did so after that time were referred to as late respondents. Of the 424 respondents, 200 (47.16%) responded early, whereas 224 (52.83%) responded late. The factors were tested for Levene’s test for homogeneity of variances. No significant difference could be observed between early and late respondents (R. Kaur & Singh, 2023), and hence non-response bias was ruled out.

Common Method Variance

Harman’s one-factor test was used to analyse common method variance. The data revealed that no single factor explained more than 25.22 % of the variance, which is well within the limit of 50% established by previous research (Podsakoff & Organ, 1986).

Questionnaire Development

A self-administered questionnaire was developed to collect the data from the target respondents regarding consumer’s purchase behavior towards energy efficient air conditioners. The list of considerations along with their sources has been attached in the appendix. All constructs involved in the present study were measured by developing a 7-point scale representing (1) strongly disagree and (7) strongly agree (presented in Table 3).

Table 3.

Scale Items/Source Studies/CFA Scores

Constructs	Source studies	CFA score
Attitude	(Ha & Janda, 2012; Hua & Wang, 2019)	0.743
Subjective norms	(Chen & Tung, 2014; Fornara et al., 2016; Han et al., 2010; Hua & Wang, 2019; Shi et al., 2017)	0.703
Perceived behavioral control	(Alam et al., 2014)	0.760
Personal norms	(Barbarossa & De Pelsmacker, 2016; Steg et al., 2005)	0.700
Environmental concern	(Dunlap et al., 2000; Kilbourne & Pickett, 2008; Shi et al., 2017)	0.779
Purchase intention	(Apipuchayakul & Vassanadumrongdee, 2020; M. Mostafa Mohamed, 2010)	0.723
Purchase behavior	(Apipuchayakul & Vassanadumrongdee, 2020)	0.745
Relative advantage	(Jansson, 2011; Kapoor & Dwivedi, 2020; Rogers, 2003)	0.834
Compatibility	(Alam et al., 2014; Pathania et al., 2017; Rogers, 2003)	0.893
Complexity	(Pathania et al., 2017)	0.936
Observability	(Dilotsotlhe, 2021; Pathania et al., 2017; Rogers, 2003)	0.932
Trialability	(Pathania et al., 2017)	0.941

Results

Confirmatory Factor Analysis

Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) has been used for evaluating the data and analysing the reliability and validity of the constructs. The combined CFA score greater than or equal to 0.4 signify the presence of the respective constructs (Table 3).

Reliability and Validity Analysis

Each construct’s composite reliability was determined to be over 0.6, which is a suitable level for construct reliability. The AVE values of each construct were found to be above or equal to 0.5, supporting convergent validity. The maximum shared variance and average shared variance values were less than the AVE values, indicating that there was no significant correlation between the various constructs and supporting discriminant validity (Hair et al., 2015) (presented in Tables 4 and 5).

Table 4.

Reliability and Validity Analysis (Expanded Theory of Planned Behavior)

Constructs	CR	AVE	MSV	ASV	PBC	EC	A	SN	PN	IN	PB
PBC	0.805	0.579	0.444	0.353	0.761
EC	0.903	0.611	0.279	0.232	0.528	0.781
A	0.909	0.558	0.433	0.319	0.552	0.491	0.747
SN	0.874	0.503	0.479	0.354	0.605	0.439	0.626	0.709
PN	0.831	0.501	0.389	0.276	0.539	0.432	0.484	0.527	0.708
IN	0.848	0.532	0.498	0.416	0.657	0.515	0.658	0.692	0.624	0.729
PB	0.834	0.557	0.498	0.362	0.666	0.474	0.557	0.647	0.528	0.706	0.746

Note. CR – Composite Reliability, AVE- Average Variance Extracted, MSV- Maximum Shared Variance, ASV – Average Shared Variance, PBC- Perceived Behavioral Control, A- Attitude, SN- Subjective Norms, PN- Personal Norms, IN- Purchase Intention, PB- Purchase Behavior, EC- Environmental Concern.

Model fit: CMIN/DF = 2.711, Root Mean Square Error of Approximation (RMSEA) = 0.064, Comparative Fit Index (CFI) = 0.910, Turkew – Lewis Index (TLI) = 0.900, Incremental Fit Index (IFI) = 0.910.

Table 5.

Reliability and Validity Analysis (Innovation Characteristics)

Constructs	CR	AVE	MSV	ASV	CX	RA	TR	OB	CP	IN	PB	EC
CX	0.957	0.880	0.116	0.036	0.938
RA	0.920	0.697	0.108	0.063	0.285	0.835
TR	0.959	0.886	0.116	0.048	0.341	0.288	0.941
OB	0.954	0.873	0.108	0.034	0.124	0.328	0.116	0.935
CP	0.953	0.803	0.094	0.045	0.195	0.273	0.307	0.177	0.896
IN	0.849	0.534	0.477	0.133	0.003	0.244	0.152	0.231	0.232	0.730
PB	0.808	0.519	0.477	0.111	0.025	0.145	0.046	0.107	0.133	0.691	0.720
EC	0.907	0.620	0.266	0.076	0.005	0.111	0.047	0.070	0.071	0.516	0.494	0.787

Note. CR – Composite Reliability, AVE- Average Variance Extracted, MSV- Maximum Shared Variance, ASV – Average Shared Variance, CX- Complexity, RA- Relative Advantage, TR- Trialability, OB - Observability, CP- Compatibility, IN- Purchase Intention, PB- Purchase Behavior, EC- Environmental Concern.

Model fit: CMIN/DF = 2.040, Root Mean Square Error of Approximation (RMSEA) = 0.050, Comparative Fit Index (CFI) = 0.958, Turkew – Lewis Index (TLI) = 0.953, Incremental Fit Index (IFI) = 0.958.

Structural Equation Model Results

The structural relationships between the latent constructs have been tested using the structural equation model technique. The path coefficients signify the acceptance and rejection of the proposed hypotheses (presented in Tables 6 and 7).

Table 6.

Path Analysis of Psychological Factors (Expanded Theory of Planned Behavior)

Path	Estimate	t-statistics	p-value	Results
H1- Attitude – Purchase Intention	0.237	4.560**	***	Accepted
H2- Subjective norms – Purchase Intention	0.230	4.659**	***	Accepted
H3- Perceived behavioral control – Purchase Intention	0.187	3.467**	***	Accepted
H4- Personal norms - Purchase Intention	0.258	5.165**	***	Accepted

Note. Critical ratios that are above 1.96 are found to be significant at 0.05 level.

***Significant at 5% level, p < 0.05, **Significant at 1%, p < 0.01.

Table 7.

Path Analysis of Technical Factors (Innovation Characteristics)

Path	Estimate	t-statistics	p-value	Results
H5- Relative advantage – Purchase Intention	0.130	2.713***	0.007	Accepted
H6- Compatibility – Purchase Intention	0.143	2.915***	0.004	Accepted
H7- Complexity – Purchase Intention	−0.086	−2.192**	0.028	Accepted
H8- Observability – Purchase Intention	0.126	2.873***	0.004	Accepted
H9- Trialability – Purchase Intention	0.047	1.411	0.158	Not accepted

Note. Critical ratios that are above 1.96 are found to be significant at 0.05 level.

*** Significant at 5% level, p < 0.05, **Significant at 1% level, p < 0.01.

The path analysis results of psychological constructs reveal that personal norms have the highest positive and significant influence on purchase intention (t-value = 5.165, p < 0.01). Subjective norms (t-value = 4.659, p < 0.01), followed by attitude (t-value = 4.560, p < 0.01) and perceived behavioral control (t-value = 3.467, p < 0.01) have also positive and significant influence on purchase intention. Therefore, H1, H2, H3 and H4 have been accepted (Figure 3).

Figure 3.

Structural equation model results for psychological factors

The path analysis results of technical factors reveal that compatibility has the highest positive and significant influence on purchase intention (t-value = 2.915, p < 0.01). Observability (t-value = 2.873, p < 0.01) followed by relative advantage (t-value = 4.560, p < 0.01) have also positive and significant influence on purchase intention. Complexity has a negative significant influence on purchase intention towards energy efficient air conditioners (t-value = −2.192, p < 0.05). Therefore, H5, H6, H7 and H8 have been accepted. However, trialability has not been found significantly influencing the purchase intention (t-value = 1.411, p > 0.05). Thus, H9 has not been accepted (Figure 4).

Figure 4.

Structural equation model results for technical factors

Mediation Analysis

The study used a bias-corrected bootstrap analysis of mediation in AMOS 23.0 to examine the magnitude and significance of mediation effects (presented in Tables 8 and 9).

Table 8.

Mediation Results for Psychological Constructs

Proposed mediating relationship	Estimate	p-value	Results
H10(a): EC →A→IN→PB	0.055	***	Accepted
H10(b): EC→SN→IN→PB	0.058	***	Accepted
H10(c): EC→PBC→IN→PB	0.050	***	Accepted
H10(d): EC→PN→IN→PB	0.047	***	Accepted

Note. ***Significant at 5% level, p < 0.05.

EC- Environmental Concern, A- Attitude, SN- Subjective Norms, PBC- Perceived Behavioral Control, PN- Personal Norms, IN- Purchase Intention, PB- Purchase Behavior.

Table 9.

Mediation Results for Technical Constructs

Proposed mediating relationship	Estimate	p-value	Results
H11(a): EC →RA→IN→PB	0.010	0.054	Not accepted
H11(b): EC→OB→IN→PB	0.007	0.113	Not accepted
H11(c): EC→CX→IN→PB	−0.001	0.687	Not accepted
H11(d): EC→CP→IN→PB	0.008	0.137	Not accepted

Note. ***Significant at 5% level, p < 0.05.

EC- Environmental Concern, RA- Relative Advantage, OB - Observability, CX- Complexity, CP- Compatibility, IN- Purchase Intention, PB- Purchase Behavior.

The path results show a significant serial mediation in terms of effects of environmental concern on purchase behavior the highest through subjective norms and purchase intention (β = 0.058, p < 0.01), followed by attitude and purchase intention (β = 0.055, p < 0.01), perceived behavioral control and purchase intention (β = 0.050, p < 0.01) and personal norms and purchase intention (β = 0.047, p < 0.01). Therefore, H10 (a), H10 (b), H10 (c) and H10 (d) have been accepted.

No significant serial mediation was observed by any of the DOI constructs in terms of indirect effects of environmental concern on purchase behavior. The serial mediation was found insignificant through relative advantage and purchase intention (β = 0.010, p > 0.05), observability and purchase intention (β = 0.007, p > 0.05), complexity and purchase intention (β = −0.001, p > 0.05) and compatibility and purchase intention (β = 0.008, p > 0.05). Therefore, H11 (a), H11 (b), H11 (c) and H11 (d) have not been accepted.

Discussion

The present study primarily has been carried out with two-fold objectives. First objective is to compare the influence of psychological factors (attitude, subjective norms, perceived behavioral control and personal norms) as identified by the expanded TPB model with that of technical factors (relative advantage, observability, complexity and compatibility) as identified by DOI model on the purchase intention of energy efficient air conditioners.

Second objective is to compare what extent psychological and technical constructs help in translating the influence of environmental concern on purchase intention and behavior in case of energy efficient air conditioners.

Ozaki (2011) has established the overlapping of expanded TPB constructs (attitude, subjective norms, perceived behavioral control and personal norms) and DOI constructs (relative advantage, observability, complexity and compatibility).

The study finds the similar patterns for both expanded TPB constructs and DOI constructs in terms of influence on purchase intention. All expanded TPB constructs have significant and positive influence on purchase intention towards energy efficient air conditioners. Previous empirical studies also establish the positive and significant influence of TPB constructs and personal norms on purchase intention towards energy efficient appliances (Apipuchayakul & Vassanadumrongdee, 2020; Hossain et al., 2022).

Similarly, all DOI constructs except trialability, have significant influence on purchase intention. Out of these constructs, three constructs, namely ‘relative advantage’, ‘compatibility’ and ‘observability’ have positive and significant influence on purchase intention, whereas ‘complexity’ has negative and significant influence on purchase intention. Previous empirical studies have also found positive influence of DOI constructs and negative influence of complexity on intention in case of solar energy (Pathania et al., 2017) and biogas production technology adoption (Ahmad et al., 2023).

Among the expanded TPB constructs, ‘personal norms’ have been found to be the highest influencing factor followed by ‘subjective norms’, closely followed by ‘attitude’ and then followed by ‘perceived behavioral control’. The present study conforms with the findings of studies carried out by Apipuchayakul and Vassanadumrongdee (2020) and Tan et al. (2017).

Similarly, among DOI constructs (comprising of technical factors), ‘compatibility’ has the highest influence on purchase intention closely followed ‘observability’, ‘relative advantage’ and then followed by ‘complexity’ (negative influences).

The directions and order of influence reveals the similar patterns between TPB and DOI constructs, in other words, between psychological and technical factors. This similarity in patterns observed in the present study also empirically validates the overlapping between TPB and DOI constructs as established by Ozaki (2011).

The present study further reveals that though there are similar patterns both with expanded TPB and DOI constructs in terms of direction and order of influence on purchase intention, yet there are differences between these constructs in terms of degree of influence on purchase intention. DOI constructs have been found relatively less influencing in comparison to the influence of TPB constructs on purchase intention.

None of the DOI constructs has been found translating the impact of environmental concern on purchase intention and behavior, whereas expanded TPB constructs have been found translating environmental concern into purchase intention and behavior. This has happened probably due to weak association between environmental concern and DOI constructs, and strong association between environmental concern and expanded TPB constructs.

Based on above, the existence of energy efficiency gap can probably be attributed to the marketing interventions that are generally focused on consumer’s self-interest in terms of saving on electricity bill. The current marketing interventions targeting technical aspects in general in terms of ‘saving on electricity bill’ are not robust in order to make a breakthrough into consumer’s inertia for not adopting energy efficient air conditioners (Asif et al., 2023; Dilotsotlhe, 2021). This is probably because interventions solely based upon DOI theory lack sensation and altruism.

Environmental concern may generate altruistic motivations that have been linked to individual’s moral pleasure (personal norms) and social pressures (injunctive norms) brought on by the ‘warm glow effect.’ According to the current study, environmental concern results in the development of subjective norms, an attitude that is favorable in terms of disposition, moral obligations that represent what is right and suitable, and the ability to overcome obstacles by increasing self-efficacy.

Implications

Theoretical Implications

The extended theory of planned behavior is more robust framework in terms of translating environmental concern into purchase behavior in comparison to diffusion of innovation framework. There are a few studies (hardly in energy efficient appliances) that empirically validate the relative impact of the ‘extended theory of planned behavior’ vis a vis ‘diffusion of innovation theory’.

Social Marketing Implications

Most of the marketing campaigns of the firms producing energy efficient air conditioners have been found oriented towards technical aspects, such as relative advantage, observability i.e. use by others, and needs of the consumers (Dilotsotlhe, 2021; Pathania et al., 2017). However, these are not sufficient enough to bridge energy efficiency gap. It is extremely critical to go beyond consumers’ self-interests by promoting environmental benefits also in their marketing communication. Here comes the role of social marketing. Considering the significant prevalence of environmental concern among Indian households and significant sequential mediation of TPB factors, social propositions can make a considerable impact. Hence, it draws the attention of social marketer to design social marketing interventions based on attitude, social reinforcements, activating personal norms, and using automatic and reflective motivation tools.

There can be three types of interventions: education, marketing and law. Education and social marketing program can play a pivotal role for voluntary behavior change. In the social marketing program, the intervention mix may include incentivizing, enabling access, engaging people for adopting for energy efficient air conditioners and exemplifying the desired behavior (Jackson, 2005). These interventions will help targeting diverse consumer segments for adopting the said pro-environment behavior. ‘Consumers with a conscience’ are highly motivated and avoid guilty feeling about environmental damage. Such consumers can be provided easy access of these appliances. The marketers may showcase the vivid demonstrations of those consumers, who carry pride in adopting energy efficient appliances. Such exemplification of rewarding consumers publicly on social media websites or on brand’s websites may activates subjective norms. This will encourage the ‘basic contributors’ who are sceptical about behavior change, but possess a desire to conform to social norms. Some potential customers are ‘currently constrained’, who do not think that they can do much towards environment protection. Such people can be actively engaged by building a community, in which valuable content and experiences can be shared, and doubts can be addressed through feedback. Incentive plans, such as easy credit instalments can be useful for ‘long-term restricted customers’, who are unable to afford initial outlay, due to other priorities. There seems to be no need to enforce the use by implementing law in this context because there already exists significant environmental concern among the selected society.

Social marketing practitioners may use ‘automatic and reflective motivation’ tool to promote ecological benefits along with direct benefits to increase sensitivity towards the environment in the society. This will give rise to consumer’s empowerment with which they feel that they can make a difference. Marketers may install calculator tool that show how much a consumer can save on energy bills per month which in turn leads to how much saving the environment from degradation. This will help in developing favourable attitude towards energy efficient air conditioners.

Education may build and stimulate the personal norms. The persuasive messages such as, ‘stay cool and comfortable, while keeping your environment pleasant’ and ‘reciprocate to nature’s blessings by using energy efficient air conditioners’ may put onus on citizens for pro-environment behavior. The society in general needs to be educated by organizing educational programs using different platforms how energy guzzler appliances contribute to environmental damage.

The overlapping between expanded TPB and DOI constructs manifests that integrated marketing communication based on both the types of constructs will put synergetic impact on purchase intention. For instance, an energy efficient air conditioner can be promoted by explaining relative advantage in terms of its pay-back period (‘power up your savings’) and also by driving an emotive factor through ‘signed petitions and commitments’ that they would be a pride citizen contributing to the healthy environment through the use of energy efficient appliances.

Limitations and Future Scope of Study

The current study compares the relative effectiveness of expanded TPB model with DOI model in the case of purchase behavior towards energy efficient air conditioners. The context of the study is limited in terms of a product, place and households covered. Future studies can be carried out with a larger sample, multiple products and wider regions to generalize the findings of the study in case of pro-environmental purchase behavior situations. Though every effort has been made to rule out social desirability bias, yet it can’t be completely ruled out in a self-reported behavior. Future research could focus on actual purchase behavior through a longitudinal analysis to capture behavioral changes over time. The present study did not test the moderation effects of demographic variables such as education and income. Those effects may be studied in future studies. Social marketing practices can be designed by using the significant factors of the study to determine the success factors for bridging the gap between theory and practice.

Footnotes

ORCID iD

Nirmal Kaur

Ethics Considerations

The study has been carried out with the approval of the Research Advisory Committee of the author’s parent institute (DR B R Ambedkar National Institute of Technology, Jalandhar). Ethical standards of the research have been strictly adhered to in terms of no influence on the participants, ensuring wilful participation of respondents, keeping confidentiality, and apprising the participants about the purpose of study and its publication. The Research Advisory Committee is constituted for every research scholar, whose chairman is Dean Academic or any other senior professor of the institute as his nominee. Other members include the head of the department and other faculty members who act as research advisors. The research scholar presents the entire research plan before the committee including method of data collection, population and selection of respondents. The data collection process starts after the approval of the research plan by the Research Advisory Committee.

Consent to Participate

The participants consent was obtained verbally and then the instrument (survey questionnaire) was served to the participants. The authors have further ensured adherence to ethical standards of research as carrying out biased free study and no influence or pressure was exerted on participants.

Funding

The authors received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

The authors declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Author Biographies

Nirmal Kaur is a PhD research scholar in the Department of Humanities and Management, Dr B R Ambedkar National Institute of Technology, Jalandhar, India, 144008. Her main research interest areas include Social Marketing, Consumer Behavior, Green Consumer Behavior, Green Marketing, Sustainability.

Dr Sarbjit Singh Bedi is presently working as Professor in Department of Humanities and Management, Dr B R Ambedkar National Institute of Technology, Jalandhar, India. His research areas include Entrepreneurship Development and Management, Human Resource Management, Marketing Management and General Management.

Dr Jagwinder Singh is presently working as an Associate Professor in Department of Humanities and Management, Dr B R Ambedkar National Institute of Technology, Jalandhar, India. His research areas include Consumer Behaviour (Consumer Experience Management, Consumer Confusion, Rural Buying Behaviour), Branding, Social Marketing.

Appendix

Considerations	Source studies
Attitude
A1: It is important to me whether the household appliance is energy efficient or not.	(Ha & Janda, 2012; Hua & Wang, 2019)
A2: I prefer energy efficient appliances over conventional products.
A3: I get upset with energy wastage.
A4: Purchasing energy efficient appliances is a wise choice.
A5: I hardly see any benefit from buying energy efficient appliances.
A6: I can save money by purchasing energy efficient appliances.
A7: I am not bothered with the energy consumption.
A8: I would like to recommend energy efficient appliances to people around me.
Subjective norms
SN1: Most of the people who are important to me expect me to buy energy efficient appliances.	(Chen & Tung, 2014; Fornara et al., 2016; Han et al., 2010; Hua & Wang, 2019; Shi et al., 2017)
SN2: Advice from others influenced (s) my decision to adopt energy efficient appliances.
SN3: Many of my relatives or friends have already adopted solutions for improving the energy efficiency of their homes.
SN4: My family expects that I should purchase energy efficient appliances.
SN5: My relatives or friends praisesme when I purchase energy efficient appliances.
SN6: I feel under social pressure to participate in purchasing of energy efficient appliances.
SN7: Trend of using energy efficient appliances is increasing.
Perceived behavioral control
PBC1: I can easily buy energy efficient appliances.	(Alam et al., 2014)
PBC2: I am confident that I would use energy efficient household appliances even if another person advises me to use non-energy efficient appliances.
PBC3: I can afford to buy and bear the maintenance cost of energy efficient appliances.
Personal norms
PN1: It is against my principles or morals to buy electrical appliances that consume more energy.	(Barbarossa & De Pelsmacker, 2016; Steg et al., 2005)
PN2: People like me owe responsibility by using electrical appliances that save energy.
PN3: I feel no guilt if I buy electrical appliances that consume more energy.
PN4: I personally feel good when I contribute to energy saving and emission reduction.
PN5: I feel morally obliged to invest in energy improvement regardless of what others are doing.
Environmental concern
EC1: I consider environmental friendliness as an important factor while purchasing appliances.	(Dunlap et al., 2000; Kilbourne & Pickett, 2008; Shi et al., 2017)
EC2: I believe that using energy efficient appliances helps in resolving global warming issue.
EC3: Nature’s balance is very delicate and easily disturbed.
EC4: I would be willing to reduce my energy consumption to protect the environment.
EC5: I am concerned about the long-term consequences of the unsustainable behavior.
EC6: Human beings must live in harmony with nature in order to survive.
Purchase intention
IN1: I would definitely consider buying energy efficient appliances whenever I will make my next purchase.	(Apipuchayakul & Vassanadumrongdee, 2020; Mohamed, 2010)
IN2: I will participate in the campaign of energy saving by promoting energy efficient appliance.
IN3: I will never consider high energy using appliance in the choice set.
IN4: I consider high electricity bill as wastage of money.
IN5: I will convince my friends and colleagues to use energy efficient appliances.
Purchase behavior
PB1: I have purchased (will purchase) energy efficient appliances in the past few years.	(Apipuchayakul & Vassanadumrongdee, 2020)
PB2: I always (will) buy energy efficient appliances even though it is expensive.
PB3: I would never buy energy efficient appliances.
PB4: I always recommend to others to buy energy efficient appliances.
Relative advantage
RA1: Energy efficient appliances are environment friendly.	(Jansson, 2011; Kapoor & Dwivedi, 2020; Rogers, 2003)
RA2: Energy efficient appliances are economical in use.
RA3: Using energy efficient appliances reduces the pressure on electricity consumption.
RA4: The energy efficient appliances reduce carbon footprint production.
RA5: Energy efficient appliances are reliable and efficient.
Compatibility
CP1: Buying energy efficient appliances fits in my priorities.	(Alam et al., 2014; Pathania et al., 2017; Rogers, 2003)
CP2: I find need to use energy efficient appliances.
CP3: To use energy efficient appliances is/would be in line with my values.
CP4: After using energy efficient appliances, I need not to try other forms of energy.
CP5: I will worry for not using energy efficient appliances.
Complexity
CX1: There is no difficulty in using energy efficient appliances.	(Pathania et al., 2017)
CX2: Energy efficient appliances are not difficult to understand for non-technical person.
CX3: The information about energy efficient appliances is easy to find.
Observability
OB1: I observed others using energy efficient appliances and understand its advantages.	(Dilotsotlhe, 2021; Pathania et al., 2017; Rogers, 2003)
OB2: Buying energy efficient appliances would be a testimony to the fact that I care about the environment.
OB3: I am influenced by observing the benefits of using energy efficient appliances.
Trialability
TR1: It did not take me much time to try energy efficient appliances before I finally accepted their use.	(Pathania et al., 2017).
TR2: It will be easy to use energy efficient appliances more frequently after trying them out.
TR3: I do not need a trial to be convinced that energy efficient appliances are the best for me.

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