A Review of Current Methods to Develop Empowering Service-Learning Programs for Latina/o College Students

Abstract

Spanish

This review of research suggests a need for service-learning programs that empower Latina/o students. Research on the status of Latina/os in higher education and key challenges to Latina/o student success highlights the demand for innovative programmatic solutions. A review of postcolonialist educational and Latina/o student identity theory along with case studies from critical service-learning programs is presented to provide a framework for program innovation, and recommendations are made for future program development research.

Keywords

postcolonialist educational theory literature review higher education service learning Latina/o students social justice critical pedagogy program development

Introduction

To understand the potential of service-learning programs as methods for empowerment of multicultural students and their communities, program designers and researchers must begin by investigating the sociocultural context in which students and institutions of higher education in the United States are embedded. The present review first introduces innovative service-learning programs as potentially empowering postcolonialist educational frameworks for Latina/o students. It then explores further by presenting current research describing the status of Latina/o students in institutions of higher education and highlighting key issues at stake in Latina/o student success. With this context established, the review then presents postcolonialist cultural theory that can serve as a framework for programmatic innovation to address Latina/o educational needs. Finally, social justice service-learning programs are examined as a potential mode for empowering Latina/o students and supporting their success. By drawing together research in the fields of Latina/o education, postcolonialist theory, and service-learning program development, this review reveals how an awareness of identity politics and communal values may prove to be a helpful ingredient in building successful service-learning programs for Latina/o students at community colleges in the future.

Service-Learning Programs for Latina/o Student Empowerment

Service-learning programs, or educational programs with an applied, not-for-profit service-oriented purpose, offer real-world engagement opportunities in a variety of settings that benefit students and communities in transformative ways (Barney, Kirk, & Fife, 2011; Bedolla, 2012; d’ Arlach, Sánchez, & Feuer, 2009; Dewey, 1916/1990; Freire, 2001; Guenther & Miller, 2011; hooks, 2003; Jenkins, 2012; Keen & Hall, 2009; O’Loughlin-Brooks & Smith, 2011; Taggart & Crisp, 2011). Yet the potential of service-learning programs to increase the quality of educational opportunities specifically for underserved Latina/o students has not been explored in depth.

Service-learning programs that promote social justice are inherently compatible with the aims of postcolonialism, but service-learning programs are not necessarily postcolonialist. Service-learning has become increasingly pervasive as a method of curricular delivery in the 21st century, resulting from the popularity of theories of engaged learning and experiential education as pedagogical tools and an emphasis on civic responsibility as a primary social function of higher education (Butin, 2006; Ling Yeh, 2010). Some service-learning projects have been directed toward creating learning environments that are adapted to the self-identified values and needs for cross-cultural identity development of learning communities, and a few of these studies have focused primarily on serving Latina/o student populations (Argenal & Jacquez, 2015; Bernal, Alemán, & Garavito, 2009; d’ Arlach et al., 2009; Garcia, 2007; Gregory et al., 2006; Hipolito-Delgado & Zion, 2015; Jones, Robbins, & LePeau, 2011; Martin & Pirbhai-Illich, 2015; McNally, 2004; Muñoz, 2012; Ross, 2012; Winans-Solis, 2014). As multicultural service-learning scholars Jay (2008), Ross (2012), and Steinman (2011) have asserted, service-learning programs that truly promote the aims of decolonization and social justice must transcend the frameworks of volunteerism or community service initiatives by seeing multicultural difference as an imperative to transform entire educational value systems. Although past studies have established the potential for service-learning projects to serve Latina/o communities by focusing on localized pilot projects, their ability to offer generalizable considerations for future research and project development is limited. There is still a dearth of service-learning research focused on the distinctive communal educational values and identities of Latina/o student populations and communities. More extensive knowledge is needed about Latina/o values and identities for service-learning program designers to reconceive programs for adult students that come from Latina/o community perspectives and align service designs to meet their educational holistic communal needs.

An Imperative for Innovation: The Latina/o Student Population

Latina/o populations currently represent the largest minority group in the United States and, between 2010 and 2025, their numbers are projected to rise by approximately 13.5 million as they replace baby boomers in the workforce (Brown &Patten, 2012; Teranishi, Suárez-Orozco, & Suárez-Orozco, 2011). Community colleges are uniquely suited to offer resources for Latina/o students that are affordable and local, and they are the primary higher educational resource of these students (Bedolla, 2012; Contreras & Gerardo, 2007; Crisp & Nora, 2010; Gándara & Contreras, 2009; Razfar & Simon, 2011; Teranishi et al., 2011). Although percentages of Latina/o immigrants who have completed at least high school degrees were projected to increase from below 10% to just above 20% from 1993 to 2013 according to the Western Interstate Commission for Higher Education (WICHE), there is still much concern about these students’ persistence at community colleges (Coxen, Gershwin, Kelley, & Yakimov, 2007).

In the context of this review, “Latina/o student populations” refer to first-generation immigrants along with their children and grandchildren, all of whom identify themselves as having Latin American origins and who may or may not be Spanish speakers. Many Latina/o students come from low-income families and identify themselves on a spectrum of mixed indigenous and European (Mestiza/o) heritage, although higher income students, and those of majority European heritage from Latin America (and even Spain, in some cases), may also identify as Latina/os (Anzaldúa, 1999; Brown & Patten, 2012). The primary focus of this review is to enrich program design for all multicultural Latina/o students, and, as such, the review points not toward a “universal” set of Latina/o cultural values but, rather, to the possibility of identifying considerations for postcolonialist programs grounded on students’ own self-determined goals and values.

National Trends in Latina/o Higher Education

Recent social and demographic studies have reported the general status of Latina/os within the U.S. educational system, including higher education (Aud, Fox, & Kewal Ramani, 2010; Bernal et al., 2009; Coxen et al., 2007; Crisp & Nora, 2010 Fry, 2011; Gandara & Contreras, 2009; Hurtado & Ponjuan, 2005; Nuñez, 2009; Razfar & Simon, 2011; Saenz & Ponjuan, 2009; Teranishi et al., 2011). Many of these scholars expressed concern that, while increased numbers in enrollment in education for Latina/os on the whole may seem a positive development, these numbers are largely due to increased population sizes, are overwhelmingly female (male enrollment has proportionally decreased), and very rarely result in increased degree completion for these students (Arbona & Nora, 2007; Aud et al., 2010; Crisp & Nora, 2010; Fry, 2011; Gándara & Contreras, 2009; Razfar & Simon, 2011; Saenz & Ponjuan, 2009; Teranishi et al., 2011).

Growing populations and widening educational gaps

In their study, Arbona and Nora (2007) identified contributing factors of attrition or persistence among Hispanic college students based on a 1988-2000 longitudinal study and using existing data and descriptive statistical models. They found that Hispanic students, while increasingly likely to attend college, are not likely to complete 4-year degrees absent factors such as intent to complete from the beginning, attendance of 4-year colleges, and preparatory high school curricula in science and math. Bedolla (2012) synthesized a wide variety of data and reports regarding Latino demographics and educational goals as well as civic values. Bedolla’s study found that Latino populations in the United States are being underserved by the educational system as a vehicle to increase democratic engagement and also that more investment is needed in Latino-serving schools and colleges to promote a more thriving American democracy in the future.

Crisp and Nora (2010) aimed to discover what factors predict success for Latino/a students who begin at community colleges and seek to transfer to earn 4-year degrees. The researchers used recent statistical data from reports on the Latina/o student population and theoretical models to analyze predicting factors of success. Outcome and predictor variables were analyzed using descriptive statistics from the longitudinal data set, and a regression model was created. Their study found that enrolling in higher math courses during high school, having parents with higher levels of education, and receiving more financial aid increased the odds of being successful. Although this study, like Arbona and Nora’s (2007) and Bedolla’s (2012) offers information about important contributing factors associated with Latina/o student persistence of attrition, it does not offer possible solutions in program design for higher education faculty and administrators. While independent sociocultural variables such as high school curricula and student income may weigh heavily on student Latina/o student behavior, college environmental factors such as student engagement are far more flexible and variable for institutions. This may suggest the need for a study that examines both individual student characteristics as well as the characteristics of the college.

Integration of Latina/o students into campus environments

Significant research has also focused specifically on Latina/o students’ self-described integration into and satisfaction with campus environments to explain cultural impacts of campus environments on Latina/o students. The purpose of the Hurtado and Ponjuan’s (2005) study was to explore and better understand factors involved in campus climates at 4-year colleges that affect Latina/a student outcomes. The study found that students who had strong cultural ties and who reported positive interactions in diversity experiences perceived more hostile campus climates and that those experiencing hostile diversity climates also had a lower sense of belonging, but that participation in support programs and interactions with diverse peers had positive effects on analytical skills and pluralistic orientation. According to Hurtado and Ponjuan, these findings underscored the importance of support networks among Latina/o students.

Nuñez (2009) also analyzed correlations between Latina/o students’ social and intercultural capital through diversity awareness and community engagement and their sense of belonging and perceptions of hostile campus climate. The study found that social and intercultural capital gained does positively impact Latino students’ sense of belonging, and it has a negative relationship to perception of a hostile environment on campus—results that directly corroborate Hurtado and Ponjuan’s (2005) findings. Again, it is interesting that sociocultural ties were found to increase both positive aspects of belonging and also negative perceptions of the institutions.

Other studies have explored factors that support Latina/o student success, such as Arbona and Nora’s (2007) investigation of academic and environmental conditions, Contreras’s (2009) identification of environmental barriers to Latina/o student persistence, and Crisp and Nora’s (2010) examination of factors influencing Latina/o student community college persistence. Results from all these studies indicated that strong social support networks were important factors in Latina/o student integration and persistence.

Anzaldúa’s (1999) and Freire’s (2001) frameworks of critical consciousness support these findings as the product of not necessarily increased negative experiences themselves but a heightened awareness of experience that creates more opportunities for transcendent and empowering understanding for students. Although results lay necessary foundations for understanding the Latina/o student experience, future research must focus on developing methods for facilitating these consciousness-raising experiences.

Latina/o students from an ethnographic perspective

Some researchers have also sought to deepen understanding of the experiences of Latina/o college students through descriptive ethnographic data. The use of ethnographic testimonios, or testimonial documents of educational experiences, in particular, has been a prevalent tool used by qualitative researchers (Alvarez, 2012; Bernal et al., 2009; Yosso, Smith, Ceja, & Solórzano, 2009). Alvarez (2012) used ethnographic data from an urban literacy program to discover how the program and language acquisition impacted a Mexican immigrant community’s ethnic ties and academic values. The study confirmed the strength of family relationships as an important factor in educational decisions for the community. It suggested the importance of collaboration within the program staff and parents in bilingual language brokering to allow parents to participate in children’s education. The study made valuable contributions to confirm the importance of collaborative community participation in education.

Bernal et al. (2009) focused on an ethnographic study of Latina undergraduate college students undertaking a service-learning project and the effects of this work on identity. Ethnographic data came from the journals of Latina students involved in the project over 2 years, and researchers used a “borderlands analysis” to analyze data, meaning they identified themes related to marginalized or fractured student identities and unequal power politics derived from the work of Gloria Anzaldúa (1999). The authors found that the experiences provided students with “decolonizing spaces and discourses” to reflect on their identities and connections with their communities.

Yosso et al. (2009) used focus groups to explore Latina/o student experiences of three types of microaggressions and developed a model using Critical Race Theory (CRT) for how these students to overcome the challenges of a racist environment. They found that Latina/o students most often develop skills of critical awareness rather than integration, which is a stage “unaccounted for in Tinto’s incorporation stage” (Yosso et al., 2009, p. 679). The implication that ethnic community support networks and critical awareness are significant for Latina/os in overcoming challenges and suggests that there are distinctive sociocultural contexts present for Latina/o students and that increasing community engagement and critical consciousness-raising activities might facilitate their success. Such findings suggest that further research to explore the impacts of social engagement and critical consciousness-raising activities in Latina/o student communities are needed.

Decolonization and service-learning action research

Finally, some research has been focused directly on engaging Latina/o students in critical service-learning projects to discover effective strategies for Latina/o student empowerment and decolonization (Argenal & Jacquez, 2015; Bernal et al., 2009; d’ Arlach et al., 2009; Garcia, 2007; Gregory et al., 2006; Hipolito-Delgado & Zion, 2015; Jones et al., 2011; Martin & Pirbhai-Illich, 2015; McNally, 2004; Muñoz, 2012; Ross, 2012; Winans-Solis, 2014). Hipolito-Delgado and Zion (2015) led the Critical Civic Inquiry (CVI) project, in which Latina/o college students engaged high school students in conversations about critical awareness and decolonized social consciousness. They found that these conversations resulted in psychological empowerment for the program participants. Winans-Solis (2014) explored a similar program of consciousness-raising between college and high school students and found that the experience of participation was transformative for students.

d’ Arlach et al. (2009) sought to check the outcomes of contemporary service-learning theory emphasizing reciprocal relationships in teaching and learning against an “intercambio” (learning exchange) community service project.

The study’s findings included support for Freire’s (2001) assumptions, in particular, project development through increasing critical awareness of participants and positive results of service learning associated with exchange of knowledge between equals.

One study (Bernal et al., 2009) has had a unique impact on advancing service-learning research focused on Latina/o student, particularly because of its emphasis on nurturing of Latina/o student identity through a service-learning curriculum. The researchers collected ethnographic data from the journals of Latina students involved in a service-learning project over 2 years and applied an analysis to the data stemming from theories of identity derived from the works of Gloria Anzaldúa (1999). They found that these experiences provided Latina students with “decolonizing spaces and discourses,” enabling them to reflect on their identities and connections with their communities and develop empowering critical sociocultural consciousness. Though the study did not give a programmatic solution that could be applied to colleges seeking to increase the quality of Latina students’ experiences, it did offer an example of one program and showed the potential of such programs to do so.

The results from all the studies listed here confirmed the empowering potential of critical service-learning programs for Latina/o students associated strongly with community-building and identity awareness. In the future, additional research should be done to expand scholars’ understanding of Latina/o student experiences and effective opportunities for empowerment and decolonization to take place. If researchers are to deepen understanding through engaged and participatory action research and case studies, it will be important for pilot projects and future studies to be informed by theoretical frameworks that account for and support development of postcolonialist educational paradigms.

Foundations for Empowering Programmatic Development: A Postcolonialist Theoretical Framework

A cross-disciplinary tradition of cultural examination or “deconstruction” based on an awareness of the relationships between symbolism, subjectivity, and power (Butler, 1999; Derrida, 1978; Foucault, 1982) has ushered in a postmodern, “post-structuralist” era in which the way that activists pursue social justice must be rethought. Likewise, educators and educational leaders have been encouraged to revise not only the practices that they use in the classroom but also the ways that they conceptualize learning along with the identities and roles of teachers and of students. In the field of multicultural education, postcolonialist theory has laid rich ground for the exploration of mutually empowering strategies for reframing educational practices and intercultural relationships.

Edward Said (1993) applied deconstructionist methods to notions of identity to expose the dehumanizing effects of orientalism and to dismantle to imperialist cultural structures underlying dominant (colonialist) conceptions of colonized peoples. Said asserts the importance of cultural narrative in the power to express and realize identity. “Culture,” he said, “comes to be associated, often aggressively, with the nation or the state; this differentiates ‘us’ from ‘them’, almost always with some degree of xenophobia. Culture in this sense is a source of identity” (p. xiii). Said also posited that culture is “a kind of theater where various political and ideological causes engage one another” (p. xiii). The battle that Said implored readers to engage is not the battle between the ideology of the colonizer and the colonized but the very notion that there is a separation between these two groups (an “us” and a “them”), because this unitary, monolithic view of identity is itself an oppressive imperialist cultural construction. As Said noted,

American identity is too varied to be a unitary and homogenous thing; indeed the battle within it is between advocates of a unitary identity and those who see the whole as a complex but not reductively unified one . . . All cultures are involved in one another; none is single and pure, all are hybrid, heterogeneous, extraordinarily differentiated, and unmonolithic. (pp. xxv-xxvi)

In this light, the colonized and colonizers share a common history and have a mutual well-being at stake in the promotion of knowledge and societal cultural awareness. Inclusion and integration of a plurality of cultural perspectives and practices allow for the inclusion of a wealth and diversity of values that may benefit society. Likewise, when dominant cultural perspectives and frameworks go unquestioned, marginalized peoples and identities are continually oppressed and their ideologies are excluded. Postcolonialist educational action theorist Vanessa Andreotti (2011) has also defined postcolonialist in education similarly, adding that, for postcolonialism to be taken up as a strategy in education, “colonial violences and the implications” must be recognized and resisted and transformation must occur (p.58).

Freire (2005) recognized literacy and adult education as means for resistance and empowerment of indigenous and oppressed peoples. On the contrary, he also pointed out the importance of an education that is imagined and realized not only by colonizers for colonized peoples but also by postcolonial peoples themselves, with their own goals and values as primary motivators. Freire pointed to the importance of hearing and valuing diverse perspectives and voices, including those underrepresented in public discourse and those given little power, to authentic processes of learning. It is only by listening to and coming to understand these diverse perspectives that meaning, and possibly truth (albeit a constantly evolving, contextual and relational truth) can be realized. As educators and learners grow together, we create a postcolonialist society that integrates a plurality of cultural paradigms and does not value one over any other.

Postcolonial feminist theorist Gloria Anzaldúa (1999) applied deconstructionist methods to create a theory of multicultural identity for the empowerment of students in the United States, particularly focusing on the hybrid or plural nature of Latina/o student identity. Anzaldúa (1999) used physical border crossings to symbolize inner bridges between ethnic identities that may be centered on either side. She wrote, “From this racial, ideological, cultural and biological cross-pollinization, an ‘alien’ consciousness is presently in the making—a new mestiza consciousness, una conciencia de mujer. It’s a consciousness of the Borderlands” (p. 77, italics in original). This Mestiza consciousness, according to Anzaldúa, transcends dominant modes of thinking about racial, ethnic, gender, or other categories of identity. And, as identity is fluid, so are individuals, communities, and societies and culture itself. We are all realized as individuals at a constantly shifting intersection of many interwoven networks of signification, symbolism, and exchange. The pattern created by processes of dialogue and relationship does not just connect us all—it also makes us who we are.

Postcolonialist Programmatic Solutions: Innovating Service-Learning Programs for Latina/o Students

As the preceding studies have demonstrated, there is great potential for critical service-learning programs to create empowering opportunities for Latina/o college students, and, in some cases, this is already happening. As researchers and practitioners continue to innovate and to explore potential with pilot programs, action research, and case studies, it will be valuable for us to take account of, benefit from, and build upon each other’s work.

Some of the key programmatic elements that mentioned here were (a) integration of social support networks; (b) social consciousness-raising, identity exploration; and (c) peer-to-peer mentoring situations. All these programmatic components have been shown to create empowering environments for Latina/o students and communities. In addition, there are as many potential programmatic variations on these themes and ways of structuring programs to include them as there are individual communities—and that is perhaps one of the most important lessons to be learned here: to be effective, critical service-learning programs for Latina/o students must be responsive to and deeply embedded in the values of the communities that they serve. The more this is the case, the more value and relevance mentoring and social action service programs will have.

Recommendations for Future Studies

The present review has examined the importance of incorporating postcolonialist epistemology into educational programs. As the United States grows in diversity, it is essential that educational leaders develop programs that not only support multiculturalism but also thrive on cultural difference.

There is a great need for qualitative and quantitative studies that apply a postcolonialist epistemology to empower Latina/o students. In the field of service learning, particularly, postcolonialist perspectives should be incorporated into current research by bringing an awareness of marginalized practices into the process of program design. Service-learning researchers should seek to understand the ways that the multicultural identities of the participants and communities they serve may call for a revision of practices. They must also look for ways to identify innovative program development strategies from marginalized cultures and to incorporate these strategies into U.S. colleges. Community college leaders, specifically, are in need of studies that verify the effectiveness of service-learning programs designed for multicultural student populations at 2-year public institutions. Studies are also needed that explore possibilities for marginalized service-learning and community-learning practices, such as those used by indigenous communities, and that find ways to test the applications of these practices for Latina/o student populations.

Summary

Latina/os already form the largest minority population in the United States, and it continues to grow. Although this population growth has amounted to proportionate growth in educational institutions, including higher education and particularly community colleges, this growth is not reflected in graduation or degree attainment rates for Latina/o students. There have been numerous studies exploring factors contributing to the underserved status of Latina/o students in higher education, including statistical analyses, inquiries into campus environments, and ethnographic sociocultural explanatory studies.

Although large bodies of theoretical research on learning paradigms that promote student success and service learning, in particular, have been undertaken in efforts to improve higher educational efficacy and achievement of learning goals, very few studies have focused specifically on the applications of postcolonialist paradigms to service learning or aligning service-learning programs with the goals and values of Latina/o students. There are vast research needs for exploration in this area as well as for service-learning programs that meet the needs of a wide variety of diverse multicultural student populations. Effective program design researchers will need to investigate not only the statistical situations and behavioral trends of the students they wish to serve but also the rich sociocultural contexts and values that contribute to identity and learning in their communities. The present review collected and synthesized research in the fields of Latina/o student education, service-learning program development, and postcolonialist theories of education to offer insights on potential studies that may contribute to educators’ understandings of Latina/o student behavior and preferences and/or effective multicultural service-learning program design with hopes that this information will form the foundation of future research and the eventual development of programs that meet community engagement and educational achievement needs of Latina/o students.

Footnotes

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Funding

The author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Author Biographies

Rachael Cate completed a PhD in the field of educational leadership with a focus on multicultural service learning program design. Her primary experience as a researcher has been centered on ethnographic interviews and case studies, primarily exploring critical service learning program efficacy, programs that promote Latina/o student empowerment, cultural consciousness-raising pedagogies, and development and contexts that lead to multicultural student success. She currently teaches as an instructor of communications in the College of Engineering at Oregon State University.

Darlene Russ-Eft is a professor of education at Oregon State University. She holds a PhD in psychology from the University of Michigan, and she has co-authored works on organizational leadership such as Evaluation in organizations: A systematic approach to enhancing learning, performance, and change (Russ-Eft & Preskill, 2009). Her research interests include the study of learning in organizational settings, investigating the role of program evaluation in affecting change in individuals, groups, and organizations, and examining issues related to ethical decision-making in program evaluation and in organizations.

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