First-Year College Achievement and Graduation Rates for Hispanic and Hispanic First-Generation Students

Abstract

Spanish

To increase persistence, many universities provide first-year seminars (FYS) for entering students. Although there have been consistent positive outcomes for FYS participants, many times, the research is based on short-term outcomes, or less rigorous analysis. This study assessed short- and long-term outcomes for Hispanic (n = 456) and Hispanic first-generation students (n = 350) who participated in a research-based academic FYS. FYS participants had significantly higher outcomes in first-term GPA, 1-year persistence and graduation rates.

Keywords

Hispanic students first-generation college students academic achievement graduation

Roughly 40% of the adult population has earned a bachelor’s degree by 2020 (de Brey et al., 2022). Individuals who obtain a bachelor’s degree are more likely to experience positive economic outcomes, such as a $20,000 higher annual income and a 13% higher employment rate than those with a high school diploma (Irwin et al., 2021). As more people pursue higher education, employment becomes more competitive. Yet the attainment of a bachelor’s degree is not the same across racial and ethnic identities, thus putting some populations at a disadvantage. While nearly 45% of White individuals earned a bachelor’s degree in 2020, the same is true for only about a quarter of Black (28%) and Hispanic (25%) individuals (de Brey et al., 2022). Despite this ongoing equity gap in higher education, the rate of bachelor’s degree pursual for Hispanic individuals is increasing faster than other racial/ethnic groups (de Brey et al., 2019). Between 2000 and 2016, Hispanic undergraduate enrollment more than doubled while other racial/ethnic groups saw an initial increase followed by decreasing enrollment after 2010 (de Brey et al., 2019). Due to this increase in enrollment, universities need to guide attention toward supporting the success of Hispanic students while honoring the unique challenges they face (Radunzel, 2021).

Hispanic students tend to face a variety of challenges to complete their degree, including an increased likelihood they are first-generation students (FGS; Excelencia in Education, 2019). Recently, Hispanic students were disproportionately negatively impacted by COVID-19. Between Fall 2019 and Fall 2020, the first-year retention rate for Hispanic students was lower (62%) than the national average (66%) and that of their White (70%) and Asian (80%) peers (National Student Clearinghouse, 2021).

To offset the challenges faced by Hispanic students, there is a call for more research into strategies to promote student success (Vaughan et al., 2019). One possible strategy is participation in first-year seminar (FYS) courses. FYS participation has been associated with higher GPAs, greater retention rates (Das et al., 2024; Vaughan et al., 2020), increased sense of belonging and connection (Conefrey, 2021), and increased academic self-efficacy (O’Connell, 2023). These outcomes are typically even more pronounced for FGS and underrepresented groups (Conefrey, 2021; Mendez et al., 2020).

It is important that Hispanic-Serving Institutions (HSI), and emerging HSIs, in particular, examine how to support their students’ success. According to multiple research studies, often Hispanic students, when they enroll in college, face racial inequity in their communities and barriers to accessing academic and social support (Alon et al., 2010; Britton & Moreno Luna, 2022). HSIs are institutions with at least 25% undergraduate Hispanic students enrolled, while emerging HSIs have slightly less (Rudick & Dannels, 2019). Research conducted at HSIs demonstrate the importance of cultural connection and nontraditional student presence on campuses with regard to persistence for Hispanic students (Arbelo-Marrero & Milacci, 2016). Additionally, Hispanic students report the presence of Hispanic faculty, Hispanic peer networks and mentors are also important factors in their persistence at their HSI (Arbelo-Marrero & Milacci, 2016). However, HSIs and emerging HSIs may struggle with the growing enrollments and how to support their students. Findings from De Los Santos and De Los Santos (2003) reported that as enrollment of Hispanic students grows, it is a challenge to meet their educational needs, including the lack of academic preparation that Hispanic students may have as they begin their academics at a university. Therefore, more research is needed on the programs and supports HSIs can put in place to support their Hispanic student population.

The purpose of this research was to explore the short- and long-term outcomes for Hispanic students who participate in an academically rigorous 3-credit FYS. Although there has been consistent research presenting positive outcomes for students who participate in these seminars, many times, the published research is based only on short-term outcomes, or the analysis is less rigorous. In this study, the following research questions were examined: (1) For students (Hispanic and Hispanic FGS) who participated in the FYS as compared to their peers who did not, does successful completion of the FYS result in higher first-term GPAs? And (2) For students (Hispanic and Hispanic FGS) who participated in the FYS as compared to their peers who did not, does successful completion of the FYS result in higher 1-year persistence and graduation?

Challenges for Hispanic Students

Despite the significant increases in university enrollment and degree attainment, Hispanic students are less likely than non-Hispanic peers to obtain a college degree (Berzenski, 2021). Many factors may contribute to these results, including greater financial and familial burdens (Peña & Rhoads, 2019), FGS status (Latino et al., 2020), and lack of belonging and connection at the university (Gopalan & Brady, 2020).

Financial and Familial Responsibilities

Hispanic students are more likely to experience higher education as a greater financial burden, with 60% of students receiving federal Pell Grants (de Brey et al., 2022). Financial considerations tend to be a high salience factor for Hispanic students in deciding on an institution, staying enrolled, and reluctance to take out student loans (Azizova et al., 2021), which may contribute to a greater likelihood of working during college (Cunningham & Santiago, 2008). In 2019, 77% of Hispanic students reported working at least 20 hr/week, and one-third of those worked 40 hr or more (Excelencia in Education, 2019). Students also reported difficulty in balancing their academic responsibilities, familial responsibilities, and working to afford the cost of attending college (Allaire, 2022; Vaughan et al., 2020). These financial challenges are often compounded by also identifying as a FGS.

First-Generation Status

Hispanic students are more likely to be first-generation students (FGS) than their White, Black, or Asian peers (Excelencia in Education, 2019), while FGS Hispanic students are also more likely to come from a low-social-economic-status (SES) background than their non-FGS peers (Latino et al., 2020). FGS is defined as not having a parent or adult caregiver complete a 4-year postsecondary degree (US Department of Education, 2020). FGS students from low-SES backgrounds are less likely to persist to their second year, have greater difficulty making the transition to college than continuing generation students (CGS), have significantly lower first-year GPAs, and are more likely to reverse transfer to a 2-year institution rather than another 4-year institution, reducing the likelihood of bachelor’s degree attainment (Latino et al., 2020; Radunzel, 2021).

In describing the challenges and anxieties around transitioning to university, Hispanic FGS, in particular, noted feeling underprepared academically and reported a lack of knowledge in navigating transition logistics and campus resources (Allaire, 2022; Vaughan et al., 2020). FGS often reported lower academic self-concept, or knowledge about their intellectual or academic skills (Haktanir et al., 2021), and lower academic self-efficacy, or one’s belief in their ability to succeed in academic contexts (Hauck et al., 2020). Hispanic students and, specifically, FGS already face considerable challenges during their time at a university, which can be further compounded by a lack of connection and belonging (Museus & Quaye, 2009).

Lack of Connection and Belonging

Underrepresented minority students may be challenged by the campus climate and lack of cultural representation, which has been associated with a decreased sense of belonging as well as a decreased sense of connection to faculty and peers (Azizova et al., 2021; O’Connell, 2023). Lower levels of belonging and faculty/peer connection have been associated with lower second-year persistence (Patterson Silver Wolf et al., 2021) and lower overall odds of degree attainment (Dorimé-Williams & Giani, 2022). Alternatively, connection to faculty and the perception instructors care about student success and well-being has been positively associated with academic performance (Manzano-Sanchez et al., 2018), cumulative GPA (Almeida et al., 2021), and student motivation and engagement, contributing to “success cycles” (Allaire, 2022). These cycles are characterized by a positive feedback loop in which positive faculty interactions lead to more positive feelings toward a course, increasing student motivation and subsequent success in the course (Allaire, 2022). One strategy to build these connections is offering FYS for incoming students.

Benefits of First-Year Seminars

First-time students have unique experiences compared to other university students in determining factors related to persistence, graduation rates, and dropout (Berzenski, 2021). Academic, social, and financial support, high engagement in educational and social programing, frequent feedback, and high expectations have all been associated with greater student success (Peña & Rhoads, 2019). Factors known to increase persistence among first-year students include the identification of goals, fostering a sense of value in their college education, and increased commitment to obtaining their degree (Zembrodt, 2021). FYS programs are often designed to incorporate all of the above (Vaughan et al., 2019).

FYS are considered high-impact practices (HIPs) and endorsed as success strategies by the Association of American Colleges and Universities (Conefrey, 2021; Das et al., 2024). Academic FYS programs are designed to foster early instructor outreach and intervention, which may offset low help-seeking and contribute to faculty connection (Swanson et al., 2017), while 3-credit academic FYS may also increase student self-efficacy and sense of belonging through scaffolded difficulty and opportunities for students to experience growth and develop critical skills (Conefrey, 2021; Vaughan et al., 2020). Academically rigorous FYS courses can promote study skills and habits of mind that students can embody and carry forward throughout college, as this helps boost confidence, increase academic self-concept and self-efficacy, and foster habits students may not have had the opportunity to develop otherwise (Hauck et al., 2020).

FGS students reported that FYS participation was helpful in building time management strategies, increasing motivation, fostering general academic skill building, and providing strong faculty connections (Vaughan et al., 2020). Students also noted that “FYS taught skills they were implicitly expected to know in other courses” (Vaughan et al., 2020, p. 134). The results by Vaughan et al. (2020) demonstrated the capacity for FYS participation to offset inherent challenges faced by FGS and Hispanic students who may lack social capital, enter academically underprepared, and struggle to balance numerous academic, financial, and familial responsibilities. Despite the many researched benefits of FYS participation, there have also been mixed and contradictory results, particularly for FGS and Hispanic students (Azizova et al., 2021; Culver & Bowman, 2020). Das et al. (2024) point toward a lack of research thoroughness and cite a need for greater methodological rigor in evaluating FYS programs and outcomes.

Methods

This study used two quantitative analyses to answer the research questions: (1) For students (Hispanic and Hispanic FGS) who participated in the FYS as compared to their peers who did not, does successful completion of the FYS result in higher first-term GPAs? And (2) For students (Hispanic and Hispanic FGS) who participated in the FYS as compared to their peers who did not, does successful completion of the FYS result in higher 1-year persistence and graduation? Participants were obtained from a public 4-year university in the Western region of the United States. Hispanic participants included all students who self-identified as Hispanic. Hispanic first-generation students are the subset of these participants. Further details about the methods used in this study are discussed below.

Participants and Data Collection

After approval from the Institutional Review Board, the sample for this study was obtained from university data sets for four fall semester’s entering cohorts. Participants were first-year, full-time students (N = 8,054) at a public university in the Rocky Mountain region in Fall 2014–Fall 2017. These cohorts were 65% female, 24% Hispanic, and 17% Hispanic FGS (see Table 1). Students’ race, ethnicity and first-generation status were identified through self-report when entering the university. First-generation was defined as neither of their parents or guardians had earned a 4-year degree. Over these four fall semesters, 1,684 students successfully completed the FYS. See Table 1.

Table 1.

Demographics.

	2014	2015	2016	2017	Total
All students	1882	1978	2,112	2,082	8,054
Women	1,254 (67%)	1,269 (64%)	1,359 (64%)	1,384 (67%)	5,266 (65%)
First generation	788 (45%)	851 (46%)	931 (45%)	917 (44%)	3,487 (45%)
All high school GPA M	3.32	3.31	3.34	3.37	3.33
Hispanic	426 (23%)	495 (25%)	484 (23%)	511 (25%)	1916 (24%)
High school GPA M	3.22	3.24	3.25	3.29	3.25
Hispanic first generation	302 (16%)	353 (18%)	346 (16%)	382 (18%)	1,383 (17%)
High school GPA M	3.23	3.22	3.23	3.27	3.24
	FYS
	2014	2015	2016	2017	Total
All students	393	402	439	450	1,684
Women	268 (68%)	270 (67%)	315 (72%)	318 (71%)	1,171 (70%)
Hispanic	127 (32%)	112 (28%)	104 (24%)	113 (25%)	456 (27%)
Hispanic FGS	96 (24%)	87 (22%)	81 (19%)	86 (19%)	350 (21%)

First-Year Seminar Program

The philosophy of this FYS is to provide the opportunity for students to attempt and complete rigorous college-level academic tasks with the scaffolded support of highly trained instructors. With a small class size (i.e., between 20and 25 students), there is a focus on building community and social networks both within the class and on campus. The FYS is a 3-credit course that helps students fulfill a portion of the 40-credit general education requirements. Information about the seminar is shared during new student orientation in the summer, and then students can make the decision to self-select into the course (although some students or majors are required to take the course, such as undeclared and TRIO program students).

The course is based on the educational psychology discipline and includes topics such as goal setting, information processing, and motivation theories. Students first learn about the theories and the research that provides the foundation for these constructs and then learn about the short- and long-term applications. Additionally, the course includes time management, wellness topics, and major and career planning. It is also a writing-intensive course that includes a research project with a poster presentation to the university community.

There is a coordinated curriculum where all sections have the same syllabus, course schedule, and major assignments. Prior to this study, the program curriculum and schedule were comprehensively evaluated each year for efficacy in terms of student perceptions and first-year academic outcomes and refined where needed. As such, by 2014 and over the 4 years of the study, the curriculum remained unchanged. Other factors related to consistent curriculum delivery and student experiences include a systematic and ongoing instructor training program.

Before teaching, the instructors complete a week-long 45-hr training in the summer. Several of the topics include the cyclical processes of writing objectives, creating assessments, delivering instruction, assessing learning, analyzing the assessments and outcomes, and instructional effectiveness. Other topics included intentional and detailed lesson planning, classroom management, use of technology, rubric construction, student-centered and engaged pedagogy, student and teacher accountability, setting expectations, and providing constructive feedback and grading. Additionally, the instructors meet weekly during the semester and are observed twice in the classroom. This training is not only to assist and help instructors in their classroom instruction and implementation of the curriculum but also to ensure the fidelity and uniformity of the courses for all students.

Data Analysis

To answer research question 1, an ANCOVA was used to determine differences in the dependent variable first-term GPA between FYS Hispanic and non-FYS Hispanic participants. To minimize potential error, covariates were included due to many students self-selecting into the program. The covariates were gender, first-semester credit loads, and high school GPA and were selected due to their potential relationship with the achievement outcomes (Stewart et al., 2015; Yue & Fu, 2017). To answer research question 2, a chi-square test of homogeneity was used to measure differences in the proportion of FYS Hispanic and non-FYS Hispanic participants who persisted to the second year and who graduated within 5 years.

Results

For each of the analyses, assumptions were assessed. All 10 assumptions for the ANCOVA were met. Similarly, the assumptions for the chi-square test of homogeneity were met, including that all expected cell counts were greater than five. The results of the ANCOVA analysis showed that both Hispanic and Hispanic FSG FYS participants had higher first-term GPAs than non-participants. The results of the chi-square test of homogeneity showed that FYS participants had higher persistence rates than non-participants. More details from each of the analyses are described below.

Research Question 1

The first research question of this study was: For students (Hispanic and Hispanic FGS) who participated in the FYS as compared to their peers who did not, does successful completion of the FYS result in higher first-term GPAs? The one-way ANCOVA showed that FYS participants had a significantly higher first-term GPA as compared to non-participants for Hispanic [F(1, 1905) = 53.37, p < .001] and Hispanic FGS [F(1, 1374) = 47.97, p < .001]. Additionally, 30% of the variance in first-term GPA was accounted for in each model. The adjusted means for FYS Hispanic students was 0.37 points higher than non-FYS Hispanic students (2.67 vs. 2.30). For Hispanic FGS, this difference was greater, with FYS students earning first-term GPAs of 2.62 and non-FYS students earning a 2.20. Table 2 includes the means and adjusted means for the first-term GPA.

Table 2.

ANCOVA and Chi-Square Tests of Homogeneity Results.

	First-term GPA
	n	M	SD	R ²	Adjusted M	SE	95% CI
FYSHispanic	455	2.71	0.85	0.30	2.67	0.05	[2.59, 2.76]
Non-FYS Hispanic	1,455	2.29	1.20	0.30	2.30	0.03	[2.25, 2.35]
FYSHispanic FGS	349	2.71	0.87	0.30	2.62	0.05	[2.52, 2.72]
Non-FYS Hispanic FGS	1,030	2.17	1.21	0.30	2.20	0.03	[2.14, 2.26]
	1-year persistence				5-year graduation
	FYS	Non-FYS	p-value		FYS	Non-FYS	p-value
Hispanic	355 (78%)	916 (63%)	.001		242 (53%)	601 (41%)	.001
Hispanic FGS	276 (79%)	625 (61%)	.001		184 (53%)	391 (38%)	.001

These results demonstrate the effectiveness of FYS programs, particularly for at-risk students, including Hispanic students and Hispanic FGS. This data is supported by other research that supports the effectiveness of FYS (Azizova et al., 2021; Vaughan et al., 2019). The results of this study, however, contribute to a gap in the literature about the effectiveness of FYS programs for underrepresented students.

Research Question 2

The second research question asked was: For students (Hispanic and Hispanic FGS) who participated in the FYS as compared to their peers who did not, does successful completion of the FYS result in higher 1-year persistence and graduation? The chi-square test of homogeneity showed that FYS participants had significantly higher proportions of students who persisted to their second year as compared to non-participants for Hispanic (χ² = 35.53, p < .001; 78% vs. 63%) and Hispanic FGS (χ² = 38.79, p < .001; 79% vs. 61%). Results were repeated for 5-year graduation rates where Hispanic FYS participants graduated at a rate 12% higher (χ² = 19.99, p < .001; 53% vs. 41%) than non-participants and Hispanic FGS participants graduated at a rate 15% higher (χ² = 23.32, p < .001; 53% vs. 38%). Table 2 includes the results for 1-year persistence and 5-year graduation rates.

In addition to the results discussed above, the results of the second research question also demonstrate the effectiveness of FYS programs for 1-year persistence and graduation. As attrition is a high cost for universities, it is important to recognize programs that are effective in retaining students. Additionally, increased persistence rates for students, potentially at additional risk for attrition, have benefits beyond university cost and time, which will be explored below.

Discussion

The results presented in this study are encouraging for affecting short- and long-term success for Hispanic and Hispanic FGS. First, a 3-credit, academically rigorous FYS shows evidence of increasing first-term GPAs, 1-year student persistence, and graduation rates. Second, students who are considered at additional risk for higher attrition and who are potentially less academically prepared can greatly benefit by choosing (or being advised) to enroll in a FYS course during their first semester. These findings are similar to previous research on the positive outcomes of FYS (Azizova et al., 2021; Vaughan et al., 2019). Although statistical significance is important, these findings are also of practical significance as some of the GPA differences were over 0.4 points (on a 4-point scale), and 1-year persistence and graduation rate differences were as high as 18% and 15%, respectively. Furthermore, a large proportion of the variance, 30%, was accounted for in each of the ANCOVA models for first-term GPA.

If universities hope to increase student persistence and graduate rates, then courses that support student achievement and success need to be implemented and prioritized as part of the required curriculum. For students who belong to underrepresented populations, such as Hispanic and Hispanic FGS, this is especially important. FYS provides students with guidance on how to navigate unfamiliar and difficult university settings while also increasing their competencies as self-regulated learners (Vaughan et al., 2019). As the results of this study show that a rigorous 3-credit course is associated with increased academic achievement for these students, the findings suggest that higher academic expectations combined with concentrated support are beneficial for students, particularly those facing additional barriers.

Furthermore, as this university mirrors other regional comprehensive 4-year public Hispanic-Serving Institutions, there is a critical need to invest in and deliver programing that contributes to short- and long-term academic success for Hispanic and Hispanic FGS (Radunzel, 2021). As these student populations are one of the fastest growing enrollments nationally (de Brey et al., 2019), more universities will be classified as an HSI and will be seeking interventions with evidence-based and inclusive curriculums and pedagogies. These findings add to the growing literature of rigorous FYS programs effectively supporting first-time Hispanic and Hispanic FGS (Graham et al., 2023; Pickenpaugh et al., 2022; Vaughan et al., 2019; Ward et al., 2020).

Curriculum Implications

For existing FYS, it may be beneficial to consider implementing a curriculum that challenges students and targets some of the areas Hispanic students benefit from. According to Cavazos et al. (2010), resiliency factors for Hispanic college students include goal setting, interpersonal relationships, intrinsic motivation, internal locus of control, and self-efficacy. All of these factors are part of this particular FYS model and curriculum, with specific lesson plans aimed to improve student goal setting, intrinsic motivation, and self-efficacy. Students learn theories associated with these areas, but they are also expected to demonstrate how the concepts are applicable to their lives as college students. For example, students complete a goals paper assignment that includes goal setting as its primary purpose but also asks students to reflect on why they are setting these goals for themselves, and who is supporting them to achieve these goals. While the FYS does not specifically address interpersonal relationships in the curriculum, students often experience an increased sense of belonging and find a supportive community with their peers and instructors in these courses with small class sizes (Vaughan et al., 2020).

It is important to consider how the inclusion of a research project in the FYS may contribute to higher GPAs and graduation rates for the students in this study. Multiple studies examine the benefits of student participation in research, specifically for students from underrepresented populations in their respective programs (Hernandez et al., 2018). The literature suggests participation in research experiences increases interest, engagement, and overall persistence (Carter et al., 2016). The rigorous nature of this FYS is, in part, due to the research project students are expected to complete. This project includes an academic research paper, developing a professional poster and presenting it to the university and the larger community. The students receive scaffolded guidance and feedback throughout the project—these skills learned during this process are transferable to other courses and prepare them for writing papers and giving presentations (Ing et al., 2021). Additionally, these expectations and subsequent presentations help to send the message that students’ work is valued and part of the scholarly community, which aligns with prior research suggesting students’ perceptions that their work is valued increases success (Manzano-Sanchez et al., 2018).

The goals paper and the research project are just two examples of assignments students are expected to complete in the FYS. The course itself is structured to parallel the transition students face as they adapt to college, giving them opportunities to learn about setting goals, time management, how to process information and prepare for exams, and monitor their progress. The course also aims to help students become self-regulated learners in preparation for their other courses and their careers, with a specific week dedicated to metacognition.

The benefits of this type of preparation with regard to graduation rates and persistence are well documented, particularly when examining the relationship between career readiness and graduation rates (McManus & Rook, 2021). Students who participate in FYS often participate in career readiness activities, and with this particular course, the students are required to research two careers, write a reflection paper, and give a 2-min presentation on their findings. The purpose of this is for students to better understand the requirements of the careers they are pursuing and increase motivation for degree completion.

With increased GPAs and higher persistence of Hispanic and Hispanic FGS, universities benefit from courses that promote student engagement and academic success; however, universities may be hesitant to implement such programs because of the potential cost of curriculum development and instructor salaries. Yet, the cost of recruiting students can well exceed the cost of retaining them (Schuh, 2005). The evidence for rigorous academic FYS courses increasing GPAs and graduation rates shows short-term success and long-term retainment are possible through these programs for Hispanic and Hispanic first-generation students.

Limitations and Future Research

Limitations to the study include that it was conducted at one emerging Hispanic-Serving Institution. This may mean that the data is not necessarily generalizable. However, other similar institutions with comparable populations could benefit from these results. Although the combination of covariates, multiple years of data and longitudinal results provide stronger evidence, it is important to interpret these results with the knowledge that many students self-selected to take this course and that the study was conducted at one university.

It may be beneficial to conduct a similar study at multiple universities to provide evidence that the data is generalizable. Additionally, it would be helpful to expand this research to other emerging HSI or HSI universities in different regions of the United States. Future research that would increase statistical significance and rigor would include conducting a quasi-experimental study with a matched control group. Qualitative studies could also provide insight into understanding why specific curricular and programmatic elements support students more than others in the short and long term. Qualitative studies may provide valuable information about how FYS programs, specifically, contributed to students’ decisions to persist to their second year. It would also be helpful to examine some of the long-term effects of FYS programs on Hispanic students and Hispanic FGS’ learning and professional development.

Footnotes

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Funding

The author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

ORCID iDs

Angela L. Vaughan

Jordan L. Martell

Author Biographies

Dr. Angela L. Vaughan, PhD, is an Associate Professor and the Director of the First-Year Seminar program at the University of Northern Colorado. Her research focuses on undergraduate student success as well as helping current and future faculty develop their practice and become more effective. Her textbook, Educational Psychology for Learners: Connecting Theory, Research and Application, provides the basis for academically rigorous first-year seminars.

Jordan L. Martell is a doctoral candidate in the Counseling Psychology department at the University of Northern Colorado and an instructor in the first-year seminar program.

Brianne T. Dixon is a doctoral candidate in the Counselor Education and Supervision program at the University of Northern Colorado and an instructor in the first-year seminar program.

Emma A. French is completing her doctorate in Counseling Psychology at the University of Northern Colorado and is an instructor in the first-year seminar program.

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