Abstract
This research is an Arabian Gulf contribution to the International Study of Principal Preparation (ISPP). It compares the perspectives of Arabian school principals regarding their leadership preparation, drawing on three sets of data collected from Oman, Qatar, and Kuwait. Data were collected using the Arabic version of the ISPP survey. The investigation included adequacy of leadership preparation, problematic aspects of leadership, and prior leadership learning experiences. Quantitative analyses (descriptive statistics) were conducted to calculate percentages of agreement related to these aspects. Findings revealed interesting commonalities and differences between the three samples. The study concludes with suggestions for improving future leadership preparation provision.
Introduction
School leadership matters for institutional success and well-being, as documented by numerous studies linking the role of school principals to school outcomes (Liebowitz & Porter, 2019; McCarthy, 2015; Xue & Bush, 2024). Several lines of research have identified the central role of principals in improving the quality of teaching, creating a culture of learning, and leading school reform processes (Liebowitz & Porter, 2019; Walker et al., 2014). Similarly documented is the diversity of skills and knowledge principals need to navigate the changing and complex requirements of school leadership (Bush, 2012; McCarthy, 2015). New professional standards for school leaders, coupled with higher expectations of schools, mean that principal preparation cannot remain sporadic and serendipitous. While many universities offer formal principal preparation programs (J. A. Grissom et al., 2019; Xue & Bush, 2024), such preparation may not necessarily be a requirement in some educational contexts that rely more prominently on on-the-job leadership development and in-service professional learning opportunities (Bush, 2012; Slater et al., 2018).
Recent debates on how best to facilitate leadership development offer numerous design principles, and unanimously agree on the need for formal and informal learning experiences (Darling-Hammond et al., 2022; Scott & Scott, 2013; Xue & Bush, 2024). Darling-Hammond et al. (2022) highlight the importance of principal preparation programs establishing close partnerships between universities and school districts, ensuring that principal candidates are proactively recruited from dynamic, instructionally focused educators. They also stress the need to provide a coherent curriculum that integrates theoretical knowledge with practical application through extensive internships, action research, and problem-based learning opportunities. However, these how-to lists generally fall short of delineating the context-specificity of leadership development, as well as the complexity inherent in the professional learning of school principals (Karami-Akkary & Hammad, 2019; Xue & Bush, 2024). Furthermore, the outcomes of these programs are often difficult to evaluate, as principal performance may vary based on individual and contextual factors (J. A. Grissom et al., 2019; Liebowitz & Porter, 2019). Similar findings are reported in recent literature reviews on the status of principal preparation in the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) countries (Hammad & Hallinger, 2017; Karami-Akkary & Hammad, 2019). The GCC is a regional political and economic union comprising six monarchies located in the Arabian Peninsula: Saudi Arabia, United Arab Emirates, Kuwait, Qatar, Bahrain, and Oman. Supported by empirical evidence from this region (Vogel & Alhudithi, 2023), these reports emphasize the need for cultural and contextual understandings of leadership development to ensure success and effectiveness. Indeed, principal preparation faces an array of challenges that are shared internationally, yet for certain socio-cultural contexts, the development of a contextualized knowledge base that can inform theoretical and practical considerations is generally lacking (Karami-Akkary & Hammad, 2019).
Despite a growing interest in leadership development worldwide (Liebowitz & Porter, 2019), research on principal preparation in GCC countries is relatively under-explored (Karami-Akkary & Hammad, 2019). While there is no paucity in the variety of leadership learning opportunities available to aspiring school principals in this region (Hammad & Bush, 2023), evidence is limited about current school principals’ views of the sufficiency and effectiveness of these programs and experiences. To address this knowledge gap, this study aimed to examine school principals’ perceptions of their leadership preparation and development, with a particular emphasis on the similarities and differences in perceptions among school principals from Kuwait, Oman, and Qatar. The selection of study contexts was motivated by the possibility of revealing similar perceptions on leadership preparation, while uncovering the subtleties of localized differences in the quality and quantity of such preparation. As part of the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) states, Kuwait, Oman, and Qatar have centralized education systems where Ministries of Education oversee all aspects of policy making and implementation. Over the past 20 years, these countries have pursued numerous reforms aimed at enhancing educational quality and aligning with global standards (Al-Mahdy et al., 2024; Hammad et al., 2022). Socially and culturally, these nations are characterized by tribal-based structures and strong Islamic influences (Alazmi, 2023). Economically, their wealth, derived from substantial oil reserves, fuels significant investments in education and infrastructure (Zahlan, 2017). We believe that, as the three countries share similar social, cultural, political, and economic features, as well as similar approaches to educational reform, delving into these contexts can provide a deeper understanding of the experiences and perceptions of Arab school principals in the GCC region.
The survey used in this study has been previously implemented in numerous international settings as part of an international project (Scott & Scott, 2013; Slater et al., 2018; Webber et al., 2014a). Therefore, this study adds the perceptions of school principals from three GCC settings to the range of perceptions examined around the world. Using a comparative research design, this study employed the Arabic version (Hammad & Bush, 2023) of the International Study of Principal Preparation (ISPP) survey (Webber et al., 2014a; Wildy & Clarke, 2009) to examine the perceptions of school principals on their leadership preparation. A total of 292 school principals from the three study contexts responded to an online version of the ISPP survey and shared their experiences of leadership preparation. Accordingly, this study makes possible the identification of strengths and deficits in principal preparation in these contexts, as well as in comparison to other countries where the ISPP survey has been previously implemented.
Specifically, the study sets out to answer the following questions:
(1) How do school principals from Kuwait, Oman and Qatar perceive the adequacy of their leadership preparation?
(2) What aspects of school leadership remain problematic to the principals?
(3) What experiences in leadership preparation did the principals undergo?
Background to the ISPP Study
The ISPP is a scholarly collective which includes researchers in Australia, Canada, China, England, Germany, Jamaica, Kenya, Mexico, New Zealand, Scotland, South Africa, Tanzania, Turkey, and the USA (Webber & Scott, 2010b). The ISPP study was established in 2005 by a core group situated in Canada, England, and Scotland who aimed to explore the availability and usefulness of leadership development and preparation programs for novice school leaders (Webber & Scott, 2010a). Within a short time, the ISPP expanded to include 14 mainly western countries, however, in later years, scholars in linguistically and culturally diverse contexts also engaged in the ISPP (e.g., Portugal, South Africa, Kenya, Turkey), which provided rich opportunities for comparisons and deeper explorations of the nuances of school leadership across very different systems and cultures.
The first phase of the ISPP commenced with exploratory interviews with novice primary/elementary school leaders which led to a series of case studies (Nelson et al., 2008; Sherman, 2008; Slater et al., 2008; Wildy & Clarke, 2008). Additionally, scholars undertook literature reviews which explored leadership and leadership preparation with a focus on their own contexts. In the second phase, scholars mapped the available leadership preparation and development programs and opportunities in each context, including: Bulgaria (Karstanje & Webber, 2008), Kenya and Tanzania (B. Onguko et al., 2008), Alberta, Canada (Webber & Scott, 2010a), Australia (Wildy & Clarke, 2008), and England and Scotland (Cowie & Crawford, 2008), and focusing on both formal and informal leadership preparation experiences. In the third phase, the survey was administered. The key focus of the survey was to identify the responsibilities and activities leaders were well prepared for and those that remained challenging. It also identified the types of leadership preparation and development experiences in which leaders had engaged and what they would have preferred to experience. The survey was purposefully designed to use inclusive terminology to allow for cross cultural comparisons.
Literature Review
This section weaves key themes from the literature on principals and the principalship alongside the findings from the ISPP. In this section the key themes include: the importance of school leaders; school leadership as a challenging and multifaceted role; availability of leadership preparation and development; the ISPP survey findings in brief; and a final note on the knowledge, skills, and attitudes that school leaders need for success.
The Importance of School Leaders
The literature identifies the importance of school leaders to the effective operations of a school, with a specific focus on the hiring of good teachers, and procuring funding for necessary programs that make a difference to students (Liebowitz & Porter, 2019; Walker et al., 2014); aligning education with system goals (Bush, 2012; McCarthy, 2015); providing instructional leadership that promotes positive student outcomes (Leithwood, 2012); and ensuring access to useful professional learning for teachers so they can ensure cutting edge instructional and assessment approaches for students (J. Grissom et al., 2021; Leithwood, 2012; Leithwood & Jantzi, 2008).
One of the tension points for school leaders is that they are held accountable for student learning and yet many of them do not directly teach students. Leithwood et al. (2020) identified that school principals’ influence on student success is second only to that of the classroom teacher. So, if principals do not teach, how can they influence student outcomes? Researchers found that school leaders can shape the school context, organizational culture, time engaged in learning, policies and practices, professional development opportunities, and directing funding to particular programs, all of which impact teachers and students (Aas & Paulsen, 2019; Leithwood & Sun., 2012; Scott, 2016). Indeed, effective school leaders tend to have four domains of practice. These include: setting directions for the school community so the vision is co-created and clear; building relationships and developing people which has a strong focus on providing professional learning for teachers and forging positive school cultures; redesigning the organization to support desired practices which entails removing the barriers to good teaching and learning and modeling positive values to all in the school; and improving the instructional program which ensures positive student outcomes and teacher efficacy by monitoring and promoting student learning and school enhancement efforts and buffering “staff from distractions to their instructional work” (Leithwood et al., 2020, p. 8).
School Leadership as a Challenging and Multifaceted Role
The ISPP findings endorsed principals’ importance to schools, teachers, and students, however, it was also found that leading schools was an incredibly challenging role (Slater et al., 2008; Slater & Nelson, 2013). In the qualitative data, new principals reported the increased level of complexity in their settings which caused significant stress and the need for leadership development to learn new knowledge and skills in order to be successful in this demanding role (Scott, 2010; Scott & Rarieya, 2011; Webber & Scott, 2010a). Examples of these complexities included: difficulties in managing teachers and poor performance, and other varied issues including teachers’ health conditions and absences (Clarke & Wildy, 2010; Cowie & Crawford, 2008; Scott & Rarieya, 2011); managing dwindling budgets and a lack of financial expertise (B. B. Onguko et al., 2012); the overwhelming load of paperwork, system demands, and accountability metrics (Clarke & Wildy, 2010; Cowie & Crawford, 2008; Nelson et al., 2008); and managing the tensions of work-life balance (Clarke & Wildy, 2010); increased diversity and conflict in student populations and the need to be inclusive leaders (Scott & Rarieya, 2011); difficulties in becoming a change agent, often without a clear understanding of how to enact successful change especially with teachers who preferred the status quo; and developing political acumen to effectively navigate the complexities of educational systems (Scott & Rarieya, 2011). In contrast, the least difficult aspects of leadership varied in each national setting but ranged across: building relationships with students, parents, and their teachers (Clarke & Wildy, 2010; Cowie & Crawford, 2008); instructional leadership (B. Onguko et al., 2008), and understanding their context (Clarke & Wildy, 2010).
Availability of Leadership Preparation and Development
Previous ISPP studies identified wildly different expectations and availability of leadership preparation programs and development opportunities in various national settings. For example, in Australia, Clarke et al. (2011) noted, “there is an absence in Western Australia of systematic or mandated preparation for the principalship. Additionally, most principals in the Australian study perceived “being prepared” as being willing to assume the role rather than being “fit for purpose.” They considered the issue of whether principals, without being exposed to formal leadership development, would know what they did not know.
The absence of available programing was also evident in Mexico and East Africa (Slater, 2011), although in Tanzania and Kenya there were five core providers, mostly universities, of principal preparation programs. However, given the number of schools in Tanzania and Kenya there were constraints placed on access to so few programs and providers, and many had to travel long distances to the program sites, and the cost of program participation was frequently discouraging or prohibitive (Webber et al., 2014b).
Contrastingly, the United States, Canada, England, and Scotland had clear expectations for principal preparation. Some had mandated qualifications and/or programs, while others, namely in Canada, had a quasi-mandate where principals were unlikely to be appointed unless they were enrolled in, or had completed, Leadership Master’s in Education programs (Webber et al., 2014b). More recently, most provinces in Canada now have accreditation requirements for their school leaders which mandates leadership development in order to meet system standards criteria with formal programs aligned with system accreditation. The content of programs in Canada tended to focus on change and innovation; visioning and strategy; communication and decision-making skills; policy and leadership theories; and school culture. Related to the findings about availability of programs, school leaders in the U.S., Canada, England, and Scotland had considerable access to various programs both formal and informal, however, the content varied as did the mode (e.g., face-to-face, online, or blended). There were many providers which included universities, private consultancies, professional associations, mentoring programs, and other informal opportunities (Webber et al., 2014b).
A key finding was to establish the importance of leadership preparation and development to encourage sound practice, develop useful knowledge, and to promote the refinement of clear understandings of leaders’ values in order to shape appropriate leadership identity. Where access to leadership preparation was not possible, principals reported problems with many of the day-to-day operations within their role and articulated increased levels of stress, anxiety, and a lack of confidence in their leadership efficacy (Webber et al., 2014a).
ISPP Survey Findings in Brief
Given that this paper is reporting on a comparison of the survey findings from Oman, Qatar, and Kuwait, this section provides an overview of the ISPP findings from the original cluster of countries that administered the same survey. Further details will be provided in the discussion of this paper, where we will compare the results from the Arabian Gulf region to those obtained in earlier surveys conducted in the western contexts of the ISPP.
In Australia, principals (n = 45) reported challenges with managing paperwork, dealing with poorly performing staff, achieving work/life balance, and balancing system imperatives with local needs as most problematic (Clarke et al., 2011, p. 175). Lesser concerns included working with parents, acquiring resources, and building positive relationships with staff. It is interesting to note that the lesser concerns with resources was likely due to a federal government stimulus package that had greater funding flowing to education at that time. Building positive relationships with staff was potentially influenced by the participant principals being located within mostly rural contexts where the school communities were smaller and closer.
Canadian survey results (n = 52) identified two main concern clusters: foundational (“survival” and “operational”) and transitional elements affecting leadership practice. The top five “survival elements” were work/life balance, staff performance, time management, school budgets, and paperwork. The five highest “operational elements” included staffing, isolation, balancing needs, resourcing, and change, while transitional elements focused on principals’ credibility, community relationships, visibility, confidence, and cultural understanding (Webber et al., 2014b). Most participants valued both formal qualifications and informal learning experiences such as mentoring and on-the-job training.
Similar to Alberta, South African (n = 66) and Kenyan (n = 166) principals reported challenges with work/life balance, staff performance, time management, school budgets, and paperwork (Webber et al., 2014a). They also faced significant issues with balancing system imperatives with local needs and accessing system personnel, reflecting centralized systems. Kenyan and South African principals expressed a need for more accessible, high-quality leadership programs that are practical and aligned with local needs. They also wanted to have control over their learning rather than have this mandated (Table 1).
Comparative Summary of Principal Preparation Across Countries Based on ISPP Survey Findings.
The Knowledge, Skills, and Attitudes That School Leaders Need for Success
When considering leadership preparation, it is important to note the various knowledge, skills, or attributes that leader-participants in the ISPP reported as important in their work. As B. Onguko et al. (2008) stated “literature on effective educational leadership maintains that leaders need a complex blend of knowledge, skills and dispositions” (Day, 2003). Carrying out quality leadership practice requires both a knowledge base and leadership skills” (p. 723). Drawing upon both the qualitative and quantitative findings in the ISPP, some identified these knowledge, skills, or attributes as useful from their leadership preparation programs, were essential in their principalship, or recommended should be included into programs. In terms of knowledge, finances and budget management were frequently noted as crucial. Understanding how to establish positive cultures (Cowie & Crawford, 2008), and the processes of change management were important (Webber et al., 2014b). Nelson et al. (2008) identified the need to learn about system policies to inform leaders’ decisions and actions.
In terms of skills, these ranged considerably according to the specificities of each context. Almost all identified developing effective communication skills as critical to the success of leaders and linked to building positive relationships, good cultures, and working with parents. Alongside and linked to communication were relational skills and interpersonal abilities which were crucial to collaborating and working with a range of personalities (Cowie & Crawford, 2008; Scott & Rarieya, 2011). Problem-solving, reflective capacity to learn from experiences, and “making sensible judgments and decisions’’ were deemed important as these were relevant to everyday operations within the school (Cowie & Crawford, 2008; Karstanje & Webber, 2008; Sherman, 2008, p. 682).
In relation to attributes and values, Crawford (2011) noted the importance of understanding “self as leader” alongside reflection on an individual’s values as important elements to establishing leadership identities and needed to be addressed early in the leaders’ career (Crawford, 2011). Both Cowie and Crawford identified that identity formation, self-belief, and confidence were important and linked to leaders’ credibility and efficacy.
Leadership Preparation Contexts in the Three Countries
Generally, public schools across the three countries are government funded and operated. With a centralized education system in place, these schools must adhere to the national curriculum set by the ministries of education and conform to their regulatory mandates. Decision-making is centralized, leaving minimal discretion and autonomy for school leadership, which is primarily limited to managing administrative tasks, monitoring teaching methods, developing schedules, and establishing relationships among members of the school community.
Further, public schools across the three states are segregated along gender lines, with separate schools for boys and girls. This segregation is maintained from primary through secondary education, reflecting similar cultural norms and values. Similar to the teaching staff, female principals are necessarily appointed in primary schools, and girls-only preparatory and secondary schools. One mandate in recent years has also been the emphasis on recruiting nationals as principals in public schools.
This section provides a brief overview of the context of leadership preparation in the three countries under investigation.
Oman
The past two decades have witnessed significant changes in the Omani education system, driven by growing concerns about the system’s overall quality and the need to uplift it in accordance with the nation’s ambitious aspirations for development and modernization. The National Strategy for Education has delineated directions for raising educational quality, with particular emphasis on promoting effective school leadership and management practices to facilitate the implementation of reforms (The Education Council, 2018). This has created the need for developing competent school leaders who can translate visionary reforms into tangible actions and outcomes.
Historically, and similar to other GCC countries, the development of school principals in Oman followed a gradual trajectory, with leadership preparation often provided in the form of short-term training programs designed to meet the increasing need for qualified school principals following the rapid expansion of the public education system (Hammad & Al-Harthi, 2021). However, the enforcement of decentralization and the subsequent delegation of decision-making authority to schools, coupled with the reconceptualization of the principal’s role as an “instructional leader” rather than an “administrator,” have created new expectations for school principals. This role change has necessitated a shift in the leadership preparation provision
The year 2014 witnessed a significant milestone when the Ministry of Education established the Specialized Institute for the Professional Training of Teachers (SIPTT) which offers a wide range of professional development programs that combine theoretical and practical approaches to training (Ministry of Education, 2018). The SIPTT introduced a compulsory 2-year school leadership program targeting school principals and their assistants. The program aims to impart essential leadership skills that are necessary for promoting effective teaching and learning, with particular emphasis on issues such as school improvement, leading change, effective teacher professional development, and collaboration. A recent study has revealed positive perceptions of the program, but has also pinpointed a number of areas that need further development. These include sustaining school improvement, assisting underperforming teachers, and enhancing teachers’ professional development (Hammad & Bush, 2023).
Qatar
Growing concerns over the outcomes of Qatar’s educational system on international examinations have prompted ambitious educational reform since 2004. The reform, known as Education for a New Era, included several initiatives to develop educational provisions into a world-class system and meet Qatar’s changing needs (Brewer et al., 2007). During its early introduction, the reform was founded on the dichotomous principles of autonomy and accountability. While government school principals were initially given autonomy to run independent schools, and make pedagogical and fiscal decisions (2007–2016), the reform movement gradually began shifting its direction toward government schools that were completely funded and regulated by the Ministry of Education and Higher Education (MOEHE). Currently, school principals are still responsible for the daily operations of the school, but must consult with the MOEHE on all major decision-making.
Despite this tug-of-war between the intended decentralized model of governance and the reversion to a centralized model (Chaaban et al., 2023; Romanowski & Du, 2022), one guiding principle remains constant, “that no matter what else was to occur, the basic educational elements of a standards-based system had to be put in place’ (Brewer et al., 2007, p. xviii). Consequently, the Qatar National Professional Standards for Teachers and Leaders were developed as part of the country’s registration and licensing system. These standards are implemented to identify the knowledge and skills needed for school principals throughout their recruitment and preparation. Further on, these standards are used to measure school principals’ performance and ensure they meet a minimum set of requirements. They are also used as guiding principles in offering professional development opportunities to school principals through the MOEHE’s Training and Development Center.
Within this system, career development follows a single hierarchical trajectory. Moving up the career ladder entails going from teacher, coordinator, academic/administrative vice principal to school principal, and includes multiple requirements and conditions in reference to the professional standards (Chaaban et al., 2024). Candidates must submit a portfolio demonstrating evidence of meeting the standards at each stage of their career trajectories. To be considered for a principal position, candidates must hold at least a Bachelor’s degree, obtain administrative experience and certification, and undergo an obligatory 60-hr training program. They should also have a minimum of 10 years of experience in K12 schools and should have obtained at least a B grade in the last 3 years of evaluation. It is further recommended that candidates serve as coordinator or vice principal before applying for the principal position, as well as obtain a Master’s degree in educational leadership. Once met, school principals are appointed to a government school chosen by the MOEHE, and their performance is continually evaluated on a yearly basis.
Kuwait
In recent decades, Kuwait has embarked on a series of comprehensive educational reforms aimed at modernizing and enhancing the quality of its education system. The Ministry of Education in Kuwait (MOE) has played a pivotal role in this transformation, particularly through the formulation of educational development strategies spanning from 2005 to 2025, which explicitly prioritize the improvement of education quality, including the preparation and development of school leaders. As a result of these strategies, the MOE has redefined the roles of school principals, empowering them as instructional leaders with greater responsibilities. These responsibilities encompass not only achieving the educational objectives of their schools but also overseeing the instructional program, fostering a conducive learning environment, and monitoring student outcomes (Alazmi & Hammad, 2023).
Research indicates that school principals in Kuwait have often lacked adequate preparation due to the absence of formal preparation programs, relevant learning experiences, structured induction procedures, and ongoing support (Alhouti & Male, 2017). Specifically, several studies conducted in Kuwait have pointed out lack of attention to the specific needs of school principals, particularly in developing administrative and technical skills (Al-Subaie, 2011). Another study by Al-Suwairi (2008) underscores that training needs are most pronounced in administrative skills, school laws, theories of educational administration, and school planning. This is crucial because failure to meet their training needs, ultimately hindering the effective development of their leadership skills (Alazmi, 2021).
Recently, the MOE has taken further steps to facilitate the preparation of school leaders through a series of preparatory workshops designed for prospective principals. These workshops cover vital concepts in educational leadership and equip participants with essential skills, including (Alenezi & Alsaleh, 2021): (1) Developing a strategic plan for the school; (2) Evaluating the professional competence of school principals in terms of overall quality; (3) Managing school activities effectively; (4) Understanding the significance of honing communication skills; (5) Familiarizing themselves with the evaluation processes for school staff and teachers; (6) Learning how to craft formal school reports; and (7) Grasping the fundamental principles of educational law relevant to their roles. However, it remains unclear to what extent these workshops have been successful in developing effective school leaders in Kuwait.
Method
This section provides a detailed description of the research design, sampling and data collection methods, and statistical analysis techniques used to answer the research questions.
Research Design
The current study adopted a quantitative research design based on a cross-sectional survey for exploring the perceptions of school principals regarding their leadership preparation. This design allows for the collection of data from a large and diverse sample of participants, providing a representative snapshot of the perceptions and experiences of practicing principals across the countries involved. This is particularly important in the context of the Gulf region, where principal preparation programs and practices may vary across different countries.
Sampling and Data Collection
Data for the current study were collected from three samples of principals working in public schools in Oman, Kuwait, and Qatar. Our decision to focus on these countries is justified by the fact that they are all members of the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC), which is a regional organization that promotes cooperation and integration among the six Gulf states. As such, they share similar cultural, political, and economic contexts, which may influence the design and implementation of principal preparation programs.
The Omani data were collected from school principals in Muscat, the capital city of Oman. After receiving approval to carry out the research from the MOE, the entire school principal population in Muscat was targeted. The survey was initially distributed through the Muscat Directorate of Education’s electronic communication system to all public schools. Due to a low response rate, additional efforts were made to engage participants individually by sharing the online survey link through WhatsApp. Some participants expressed a preference for a physical, paper-based format, and, accordingly, a number of paper surveys were administered. The final count of valid responses amounted to 104, constituting 60.8% of the total study population.
Data from Qatar were collected in a similar way to the Omani data. Following ethical approval from the concerned educational authorities, a link to the online survey was shared through the Qatari MOEHE’s electronic communication to all public schools (N = 212). The survey was sent twice with a 2-week time difference between the first and second administrations. A total of 85 responses were obtained, accounting for 40% of the study population. As noted, public schools in Qatar are segregated along gender lines, therefore there are many more females (N = 163) than males (N = 49) in the population of school principals in public schools, corresponding with the higher number of female respondents.
The Kuwaiti sample was drawn from a total population of 635 principals representing the six districts of Kuwait. Public schools in Kuwait are segregated by gender, with a significant majority of primary schools, approximately 80%, led by female principals. Consequently, there are more female principals (N = 433) than male principals (N = 202) in public schools, explaining the higher proportion of female respondents in the Kuwaiti sample (Kuwait Central Statistical Bureau, 2023). Upon securing permission from the MOE, the survey link was distributed through email to the entire study population. A total of 103 participants completed the survey, resulting in a response rate of 15.7%.
Table 2 provides the demographics of the research samples. The table demonstrates that most of the respondents (66.4%) in the overall sample (N = 292) were females, with the same gender distribution observed across all the individual countries included in the study. Similarly, there were more respondents from primary schools compared to middle and secondary schools in all three samples, with an overall percentage of 39%. However, it was noted that the proportion of primary school respondents in the Qatari sample was significantly higher compared to those in the Kuwaiti and Omani samples. The majority of participants held bachelor’s degrees, accounting for 77% of the overall sample, while 23% had achieved qualifications at the postgraduate level. Interestingly, the Omani sample exhibited the highest percentage (30%) of individuals holding postgraduate degrees. In terms of seniority in school leadership, the predominant group among respondents in all three samples consisted of experienced principals with 5 years or more of principalship experience. Specifically, while the overall percentage of this group was 81.5%, the distribution across countries was as follows: 87% for Kuwait, 82% for Qatar, and 75% for Oman. The table also illustrates that a substantial majority of principals (80%) possessed a minimum of 5 years of leadership experience before their appointment as principals. This distribution varied by country, with Kuwait having the highest proportion at 95%, followed by Qatar at 79%, and Oman at 65%.
Demographic Information for the Study Samples.
Analysis
For the purpose of data analysis, the Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) program was used to generate descriptive statistics. Specifically, percentages of agreement were calculated to assess the adequacy and problematic aspects of principal preparation across the three samples. Percentages were also calculated to determine predominant leadership learning experiences in the respective countries.
Results
In this section, we present the study’s findings in relation to the research questions outlined earlier, starting with leadership learning experiences, followed by the adequacy of leadership preparation, and problematic leadership aspects.
Leadership Preparation Experiences
In examining the leadership preparation experiences, we explored whether opportunities were formal or informal, purposeful or serendipitous, systematic or fragmented, mandated or self-initiated, proactive or reactive, provided within a localized or centralized provider and context and whether programing was part of a teacher undergraduate program or specifically focused on school management and/or leadership.
As shown in Table 3, Kuwaiti principals were motivated to prepare themselves for school leadership (76.7%) rather than attending mandated sessions provided by the ministry. However, much of their learning was informal (72.8%) rather than formal qualifications and this may explain their report that much of their learning was fragmented (71.8%) rather than systematic. Approximately 52% reported their learning occurred before assuming the principalship, while just under half (48.5%) indicated it was on-the-job (experiential) learning. Their learning was largely associated with their initial teacher training program (70.9%) rather than focused on leadership topics. This may explain their comfort with instructional leadership and problems with more management-oriented dimensions of their roles such as budgeting, dealing with poor teacher performance, paperwork, supporting families and the subsequent impact on their work-life balance.
Categorizing the Nature of Leadership Preparation Experiences in Arabian Gulf Contexts.
School principals in Oman indicated that their learning was largely proactive and practical (84.6%), planned (83.7%), and focused on leadership and management (81.7%) rather than general teacher training. They were self-initiated learners (79.8%) who opted for formal learning programs. Curiously though, they did not report these as being qualifications provided by universities or colleges, rather these were fragmented experiences (60.6%). Given they experienced more leadership-focused training compared with the Kuwait principals, this might explain their higher levels of “adequacy of preparation” responses (ranging from 98% to 93%).
Qatar principals identified their leadership preparation focused on leadership and management (94.1%) rather than general teacher training. They took a proactive and practical stance (92.9%) and were self-driven (83.5%) rather than mandated to engage with their leadership learning which explains that their learning was planned (87.1%). Even so, they reported their learning was fragmented (61.2%) rather than systematic.
Adequacy of Leadership Preparation
In the survey, we asked principals to report their level of agreement with the adequacy of their preparation for a range of dimensions related to the principalship. These data are presented as Strongly Agree and Agree combined into an overall percent agreement. The top five percentages were deemed to be “adequately prepared” with the lowest percentages being “inadequately prepared.” These data were compared across the three countries (Table 4).
Adequacy of Principal Preparation.
In comparing Kuwait, Oman, and Qatar results, the leadership areas for which Kuwait principals indicated they were adequately prepared related to: (1) “Feeling confident as the school leaders” (94%), (2) “Understanding the culture of the community in which” (92.3%), (3) “Developing and communicating the school vision” (92.2%), (4) “Applying policies and directives from the Ministry of Education” (92.2%); with three aspects reported in equal fifth “place – “Sustaining school improvement initiatives,” “Balancing Ministry directives with local needs,” and “Initiating school improvement (improving teaching and learning)” at 91.3% agreement. It is interesting to note the areas that were reported as having the highest agreement for adequate preparation tended to relate to the personal efficacy of the leaders. This indicates those who were appointed to school leadership positions had a higher level of confidence in their vision and understanding of their community, were capable of establishing their vision for enhancing teaching and learning, and felt prepared to meet the Ministry’s expectations. Many of these aspects reflect similar knowledge and skills to teaching, in that most teachers have an understanding of teaching and learning, have a sense of where schools should thrive, and the Ministry’s expectations, so this was not surprising.
The areas where principals felt least prepared included: (1) “Achieving a work/life balance” (72.8%), (2) “Working with parents to support students” (69.9%), (3) “Addressing poorly performing staff (helping teachers to change ineffective teaching methods)” (68%), (4) “Managing school budget” (67.9%), and (5) “Managing paperwork” (66.1%). Many teachers may not have a deep understanding of the complexities, dimensions, and extent of the work school leaders must shoulder in their daily work lives, therefore it is also not surprising that Kuwait leaders identified work-life balance, managing paperwork and budgets, and poor performing teachers as their least prepared dimensions as this reflects new knowledge and skills they would not necessarily have honed as teachers.
Omani principals reported being adequately prepared for the following five aspects: (1) “Feeling confident as the school’s leader” (98.1% agreement), (2) “Initiating school improvement (improving teaching and learning)” (96.%)”, (3) “Building positive relationships with staff and parents,” and “Understanding the culture of the community in which my school is located” (both at 94.2%), and (4) “Managing time,” “Addressing poorly performing staff (helping teachers to change ineffective teaching methods),” and “Enhancing teachers’ professional development (improving their knowledge and teaching skills)” were all rated at 93.3% agreement. It is interesting to note that Oman leaders felt more adequately prepared overall with less differentiation between the varied dimensions of their role. Again, these leaders were more confident, felt prepared as instructional leaders, able to build positive relationships with teachers and parents, and understood the culture of their community. More surprising was their feelings of preparedness to manage their time and poor performing staff. This might have been linked to their capacity to engage teachers in professional development aligning with their instructional leadership role.
Conversely, the aspects for which Omani principals felt least prepared were: (1) “Acquiring appropriate resources (books, materials, equipment)” (87.5%), (2) “Balancing Ministry directives with local needs” (81.8%), (3) “Managing school budget” (80.7%), (4) “Achieving a work/life balance” (78.9%), and (5) “Managing paperwork” (75%). There was alignment between the Oman leaders with the Kuwait leaders related to budgeting, paperwork, and achieving a work-life balance. It was curious to note that these Omani principals reported being prepared to manage their time and yet the paperwork aspects were reported as lesser prepared. One might think these aspects would be aligned and yet were not. Local needs and resourcing were also identified as issues for the Omani principals.
Qatar principals reported being adequately prepared for: (1) “Initiating school improvement (improving teaching and learning)” (97.6%), (2), “Managing time” (95.5%), (3) “Applying policies and directives from the Ministry of Education” (95.3%), (4) “Sustaining school improvement initiatives” (93%), (5) “Addressing poorly performing staff (helping teachers to change ineffective teaching methods),” “Building positive relationships with staff and parents,” Enhancing teachers’ professional development (improving their knowledge and teaching skills)”, and “Feeling confident as the school’s leader” (91.7%), and (6) “Developing relationships within the community in which my school is located” (90.6%). Similar to the Oman setting, Qatar principals reported feeling adequately prepared across many more dimensions than the Kuwait principals. For example, there were two in equal second place, and four in equal fourth place. Much of their feelings of adequate preparation revolved around their knowledge of the community, relationships with staff and parents, and managing school improvement. It was surprising that they felt prepared to manage poor performing staff though, and this was similar to the Oman leaders.
The areas of least preparation for Qatar principals were identified as: (1) “Acquiring appropriate resources (books, materials, equipment)” (88.2%), (2) “Managing school budget” (81%), (3) “Balancing Ministry directives with local needs” (77.6%), (4) “Managing paperwork” (75.3%), and (5) “Achieving a work/life balance” (74%). The Qatar leaders’ least prepared roles were almost identical to the Oman leaders with resonance with the Kuwait leaders in the aspects of work/life balance, paperwork, and budgets.
Problematic Aspects
In the survey, we asked principals to report their level of agreement with aspects of their work that were problematic for them. These data are presented as “Strongly Agree” and “Agree” combined into an overall percent agreement.
As charted in Table 5, principals in Kuwait identified the following dimensions of their role as remaining problematic for them: (1) “Addressing poorly performing staff (helping teachers to change ineffective teaching methods)” (37.9%), (2) “Managing paperwork” (36%), (3) “Managing school budget” (35.9%), (4) “Managing time” (33%), (5) “Working with parents to support students” (30.1%), (6) “Achieving a work/life balance” (29.1%). This closely aligned with their reported areas of less adequate preparation.
Problematic Aspects of Principals’ Work.
Omani principals reported the following five aspects as problematic: (1) “Managing paperwork” and “Working with parents to support students” (32.7%), and “Managing paperwork” (32.7%), (2) “Addressing poorly performing staff (helping teachers to change ineffective teaching methods)” and “Sustaining school improvement initiatives” (31.8%), (3) “Balancing Ministry directives with local needs” (31.7%), (4) “Managing school budget” (30.8%), and (5) “Enhancing teachers’ professional development (improving their knowledge and teaching skills)” (29.8%). There was considerable alignment between these problematic responsibilities and their level of preparation items. Where these varied was in “Achieving a work/life balance” and “Acquiring appropriate resources (books, materials, equipment)” which were not reported in their top five problem list and yet these did appear in their list of least adequately prepared.
School principals in Qatar identified the following five aspects as problematic: (1) “Managing school budget,” “Managing paperwork,” and “Balancing Ministry directives with local needs” (24.7%), (2) “Achieving a work/life balance” and “Working with parents to support students” (23.5%), (3) “Acquiring appropriate resources (books, materials, equipment)” (22.3%), (4) “Managing time” (20%), and (5) “Applying policies and directives from the Ministry of Education” (16.5%). These problematic aspects directly aligned with the aspects they reported as inadequately prepared.
Discussion
The purpose of the present study was to explore the perceptions of Arabian school principals regarding their leadership preparation, using survey data obtained from three samples of principals working in public schools in three GCC countries: Kuwait, Oman, and Qatar. A total of 292 principals responded to the ISPP survey, identifying the adequacy of their leadership preparation, the leadership aspects that remained challenging for them, and the leadership preparation experiences they had undergone. In this section, we discuss the study’s findings in light of relevant literature and provide recommendations for future development of leadership preparation provision in the region.
Analysis of the leadership learning experiences revealed shared themes across Kuwait, Oman, and Qatar. Notably, a predominant theme across all three countries is the voluntary and proactive nature of leadership learning, with a majority across the board expressing a willingness to engage in self-initiated and practical learning. Planned learning is emphasized more in Oman and Qatar, suggesting a strategic approach to professional development. Fragmented learning experiences are reported in varying degrees across the countries, underscoring potential opportunities for more structured leadership preparation programs in the region. This is consistent with the literature, which stresses the importance of comprehensive and coherent preparation programs that integrate both formal and informal learning experiences (Darling-Hammond et al., 2022) With the exception of Kuwait where principals reported more informal leadership learning, formal programs seem to be the predominant form of leadership learning in the GCC states. Further, Oman and Qatar stand out with a higher focus on courses specifically tailored to school management and leadership, emphasizing a targeted approach to leadership development in these contexts. This resonates with research findings highlighting the importance of structured leadership preparation (Darling-Hammond et al., 2022; J. A. Grissom et al., 2019).
Commonalities and differences across the three GCC countries emerged in terms of the adequacy of leadership preparation and the areas school leaders identified as problematic. Generally, comparing the results from the three countries reveals a greater alignment between Omani and Qatari principals. However, even though there were similar elements identified in all countries as problematic and being adequately prepared for, the levels of percent agreement were distinctly different (see Table 6). For example, Kuwait leaders’ percent agreement scores ranged from ~38% to 29% in problematic aspects, and from 73% to 66% in their reporting of adequate preparation; Oman leaders’ percent agreement ranged from 33% to 31% in problematic aspects, and from 98% to 93% for the adequacy of their preparation. Qatar leaders’ levels of agreement in the problematic dimensions ranged from 25% to 17%, while their adequacy of preparation ranged from 98% to 91% agreement.
Comparing the Levels of % Agreement by Country.
In comparison with Alberta, Canada (Webber et al. 2014a), the agreement scores reported by Canadian leaders about the problematic areas were considerably higher than those reported in any of the three GCC countries (40%–71%). Indeed, the Albertan principals rated their level of agreement more than twice as much about what was problematic for them compared with their Arabian Gulf counterparts. Potentially, when we consider the socio-political environment in Canada compared with the Arabian Gulf context, we might posit that the Canadian principals may feel freer to voice their dissatisfaction with the school context and system expectations, and to voice their concerns with their problems than their counterparts in the Middle Eastern contexts.
There was alignment between the school leaders across all of these contexts in their relational capacities and their knowledge and expertise as instructional leaders, as evidenced by the prevalence of these aspects being reported as adequately prepared for. It could be argued this indicates that expert teachers who know their craft and have good people skills are the ones being selected for the principalship in the Arabian Gulf. The areas principals reported as least well prepared for included budgeting, paperwork, and achieving work-life balance. Given that finances and paperwork are very different responsibilities from that of teaching, it is not surprising that these resonated as areas of new learning. Likewise, in the case of the Omani and Kuwaiti leaders, dealing with poorly performing teachers was an area they may not have experienced in their role as teachers unless they had been a head of department with “oversight of staff” responsibilities. Similar results were reported for Alberta, Canada where the strong union environment in K-12 education created great complexities for principals in navigating and addressing poor teaching performance when the union is strong in backing teachers when they are under scrutiny and disciplinary proceedings. This was not the case in Qatar where school principals tend to be supported by the MOEHE in responding to poor-performing teachers. Therefore, they may not find this aspect of their responsibilities as challenging.
Four leadership areas appeared to be problematic across the three countries, including “Managing paperwork,” “Managing time,” “Managing school budget,” and “Working with parents to support students.” These areas were also identified as problematic for school principals in Alberta, Kenya, and South Africa (Webber et al., 2014a). Challenges related to general managerial responsibilities such as time management, school budgets, and paperwork reflect the burden of increasing expectations and the impact of time and energy expended to meet ever-increasing system demands in these GCC countries. Further, the relational challenge of “Working with parents to support students” can be problematic, particularly in the current context of educational reforms in the region that are centered on raising education quality, thus emphasizing the role of school principals as instructional leaders who are expected to play a key role in enhancing student learning (Al-Mahdy et al., 2024). As Le Fevre and Robinson (2015) suggest, lack of relational skills can hinder effective instructional leadership.
Three other areas were highlighted as problematic in two out of the three countries, namely “Addressing poorly performing staff,” “Achieving a work/life balance,” and “Balancing ministry directives with local needs.” The same areas were found to be challenging for school principals in Australia (Clarke et al., 2011), Alberta, Kenya, and South Africa (Webber et al., 2014a). These commonalities suggest that certain challenges in educational leadership are not limited to specific regions or cultural contexts. Instead, they may reflect global trends or challenges that transcend national boundaries. Specifically, the similarities in problematic areas found across the three GCC countries indicate their significance as leadership challenges and suggest shared influences and contexts that shape the educational leadership in the region (Oplatka & Arar, 2017).
Certain challenges appeared to be unique to specific countries. For instance, it was only in the Omani sample that “Enhancing teachers’ professional development” was highlighted as problematic. This aligns with the observation that the same sample identified “Addressing poorly performing staff” as a challenging aspect of leadership. Similar difficulties were reported by school principals in Kenya (Okoko et al., 2015) and Western Australia (Clarke et al., 2011). This finding highlights the need for principal professional development programs in Oman to enhance instructional leadership practices among Omani school principals (Al-Mahdy et al., 2024). Similarly, “Applying policies and directives from the Ministry of Education” and “Acquiring appropriate resources” emerged as particularly challenging to Qatari school principals.
Our findings have implications for leadership preparation in the GCC region. For example, the findings highlight potential areas for targeted professional development programs for school leaders. Efforts should be directed toward enhancing skills and competencies in these specific areas to better prepare principals to handle these problematic areas effectively. The areas identified include time management, school budgets, managing paperwork, working with parents to support students, addressing poorly performing staff, achieving a work/life balance, and balancing ministry directives with local needs. Moreover, recent educational reforms aimed at enhancing education quality in these countries suggest the need for principal preparation programs to align closely with national educational goals and policies, ensuring that school leaders are well-prepared to implement and sustain these reforms effectively. More specifically, the current emphasis on enhancing student learning outcomes presents school principals in these countries with the challenge of transforming their schools from the prevalent teacher-centered learning environments to more student-centered ones, highlighting the need to develop school principals into instructional leaders (Al-Mahdy et al., 2024). Additionally, the hierarchical nature of tribal systems prevalent in these societies can influence the leadership styles and decision-making processes within schools, where respect for authority and seniority might be more pronounced (Hammad et al., 2023). This requires that principal preparation programs not only address technical and managerial skills but also place an emphasis on developing culturally responsive leadership practices that consider the unique social and cultural contexts of these societies. These aspects need to be addressed both in initial leadership preparation for aspiring principals and during in-service professional development programs. Moreover, the presence of common problematic areas across the three countries highlights the importance of regional collaboration in designing leadership preparation provision and finding solutions to address the challenges facing school leaders in the GCC states. Such collaborative efforts could enhance the effectiveness of leadership preparation by sharing best practices and resources across the region.
Limitations
Despite the useful insights provided by this study, several limitations should be highlighted. First, reliance on self-reported data may increase the risk of social-desirability bias as principals may have provided responses which were expected. We recommend that future studies include multiple data sources such as the analysis of course-related documents and interviews with program providers to triangulate the findings and provide a more comprehensive understanding. Second, the study used percentage agreement to identify trends in leadership preparation in the Gulf states, the rationale being to facilitate comparison with previous ISPP studies which employed the same analytical approach (e.g., Hammad & Bush, 2023; Okoko et al., 2015; Webber et al., 2014a; Webber & Scott, 2010a). However, we acknowledge that reliance on percentage agreement may overlook deeper insights that could be gained through more complex statistical techniques which could help examine the significance of the differences across samples and determine the effects of principals’ demographics on their perceptions. Finally, relying solely on quantitative data may not fully capture the contextual nuances that influence the design, implementation, and effectiveness of principal preparation programs in the GCC region. Therefore, it is recommended that future research incorporate qualitative data to provide a better understanding of these programs and their associated factors
Conclusion
On a final note, one key lesson to emerge from the ISPP was that even though many themes were alike across the varied national contexts, many of these themes varied in their expression based on the nuances of the culture. All of the scholars in the ISPP identified this very early in the comparative work and ensured to note these variations and context-specific nuances so that important details were not lost or conflated as identical. These may be related to the roles and responsibilities of school leaders, the identity and educational background of leaders, the system demands and expectations on leaders, the student population, family, and community backgrounds, and the actual operations and physical environment in schools. Keeping a clear eye on cultural specificity and thematic variation was crucial in an international study because otherwise there could be the temptation to develop universal frameworks and recommendations that may be applied across very different settings inappropriately or inadvisably. Indeed, Slater (2011) and Webber and Scott (2013) offered a note of caution, which we reiterate for the Arabian contexts, about indiscriminately applying “cross cultural borrowings” of policies, terminology, and practices without any thought to the specific differences and important cultural dimensions that may render these “borrowed” concepts or strategies useless or even harmful to stakeholders in a new context.
Footnotes
Declaration of Conflicting Interests
The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.
Funding
The author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.
