Classroom Management Competencies for School Counselors: A Delphi Study

School Counseling Core Curriculum

School counselors are called to implement a comprehensive school counseling program (ASCA, 2012), of which a key component is the facilitation of a culturally responsive school counseling core curriculum (Grothaus & Johnson, 2012). The purpose of this curriculum is to enhance the students’ mind-sets and behaviors that are linked with increased success in the academic, career, and social/emotional domains (ASCA, 2012, 2014). Recent studies indicate that school counselor delivery of this curriculum was indeed associated with positive outcomes for students, including enhanced test scores, academic achievement, sense of belonging, and reduced retention and truancy (Burkard, Gillen, Martinez, & Skytte, 2012; Lemberger, Selig, Bowers, & Rogers, 2015; Villalba & Myers, 2008; Whiston, Tai, Rahardja, & Eder, 2011). One of the most common methods school counselors use to implement the school counseling core curriculum is facilitating classroom lessons (Goodnough, Perusse, & Erford, 2015). This is also one of the areas assessed in the ASCA (2012) School Counselor Performance Appraisal. Because competent classroom management is an indispensable ingredient for effective classroom lessons (Buchanan et al., 2017; Gage et al., 2018), school counselors must be effective and efficient classroom managers (Haskins, 2016).

Classroom Management

Classroom management is commonly covered in school counseling textbooks (e.g., Dollarhide & Saginak, 2017; Goodnough et al., 2015), and a small number of counselor education programs offer a classroom management course for school counselors (Perusse, Poynton, Parzych, & Goodnough, 2015). However, actual research regarding school counselor classroom management appears to be quite limited in the literature within the past 15 years (Buchanan et al., 2017). This study attempted to address this gap. For the purposes of our investigation, we used the phrase classroom management competencies to mean the behaviors, knowledge, skills, abilities, attributes, or other characteristics that positively impact students’ learning within the classroom (Valenzuela, 2010).

Although conceptual articles have considered classroom management (e.g., Geltner & Clark, 2005; Peterson & Deuschle, 2006), few reasonably recent empirical investigations involving classroom management for school counselors were extant in the professional literature. For example, Quarto’s (2007) investigation yielded a descriptive report of the classroom management techniques used by the 80 middle school counselors surveyed, yet it does not offer experts’ perspectives on essential elements of effective practice. The Geltner, Cunningham, and Caldwell (2011) Delphi study provided helpful insight into school counseling professionals’ ratings of preselected items (from the group counseling and classroom management literature) in terms of the skills and knowledge that should be part of the school counselor preparation program curriculum. Their study did not directly address classroom management competence for professionals in the field, although these are intuitively connected. Finally, the phenomenological inquiry investigating novice school counselors’ experiences with classroom management conducted by Buchanan, Mynatt, and Woodside (2017) extended the profession’s understanding of the struggles and strengths in this domain for new school counselors but did not seek to shed light on core competencies in classroom management for school counselors as a whole. The preceding investigations have enhanced the professional knowledge base regarding school counselors and classroom management, but our field still lacks a set of standards or competencies associated with effective school counselor classroom management.

In contrast, recent research examining classroom management for teachers is plentiful. An ample array of articles published in the past decade have explored topics such as evidence-based classroom management practices (e.g., Gage et al., 2018; Moore et al., 2017), culturally responsive classroom management (e.g., Milner & Tenore, 2010), perceptions of teacher classroom management training needs (e.g., Stough et al., 2015), methods to improve classroom management efficacy (e.g., Oliver, Wehby, & Nelson, 2015; Sanetti, Williamson, Long, & Kratochwill, 2018), and the benefits associated with using a relational style of classroom management (e.g., Kwok, 2017).

Taken together, both the extant school counseling studies and a sample of recent publications targeting teachers had considerable overlap regarding identification of the skills and knowledge needed for effective classroom management. For example, building positive relationships with students was endorsed by scholars from both professional camps (Blake, 2017; Buchanan et al., 2017; Kwok, 2017; Skiba, Ormiston, Martinez, & Cummings, 2016). Researchers highlighted a host of techniques (e.g., praising specific desired behavior, use of proximity, and eye contact to reestablish positive student engagement) in the literature in both fields (e.g., Moore et al., 2017; Quarto, 2007; Sanetti et al., 2018). Furthermore, researchers validated the importance of culturally responsive classroom management (Endo, 2017; Geltner et al., 2011; Milner & Tenore, 2010) and the need for engaging and relevant lessons (Buchanan et al., 2017; Skiba et al., 2016). Not surprisingly, many researchers also championed implementing rules and routines consistently (e.g., Buchanan et al., 2017; Moore et al., 2017; Sanetti et al., 2018). Similarly, investigations into both teacher and school counselor classroom management supported giving students specific feedback and eliciting responses and opinions from students (Blake, 2017; Geltner et al., 2011; Mitchell, Hirn, & Lewis, 2017). A final example of congruent competencies was the call for ongoing professional development designed to enhance classroom management efficacy throughout the careers of both school counselors and teachers (Buchanan et al., 2017; Kwok, 2018; Stough et al., 2015).

Despite this overlap, competencies were named in the school counseling research that were not found in recent classroom management literature in educational journals. Some of these school counseling-specific skills or knowledge items appear to be attributable to the different roles and preparation for the two professions. For example, Geltner et al. (2011) point out that 32.5% of the final list of their items for school counselor preparation seemed to be connected to group counseling work (e.g., group final stage, group cohesion, group process, reflect feelings, model empathy, and legal and ethical considerations for group work). Buchanan et al. (2017) endorsed building relationships with teachers and using the host teacher’s classroom management style, if it appears effective. Recommending that the host teachers stay in the classroom during school counseling lessons and that school counselors refrain from engaging in punitive discipline are both reflective of the realities (school counselors usually deliver lessons while visiting teachers’ classrooms) and role differences (school counselors avoid engaging in disciplinary action, which may harm relationships with students) between the two professions.

Similarly, items found only in the teaching literature might be attributable to the different duties and functions or the likely locations in which the two professions ply their trade. For example, Sanetti, Williamson, Long, and Kratochwill (2018) noted the importance of the physical environment for enhancing classroom management. Because school counselors usually conduct their lessons in their host teachers’ rooms, significant manipulation of the environment is challenging and potentially unwelcome. Moore et al. (2017) discussed their findings regarding the importance of instructional supports (e.g., guided notes, peer tutoring, and computer assistance) and the importance of observation and analysis of student behavior (e.g., using frequency counts). This might be cumbersome for school counselors who visit many classrooms and lack extensive time with any one set of students, and adaptations of these teacher competencies did not appear in the empirical school counseling literature to date.

In sum, scholars claim that classroom management is vital to the delivery of effective classroom lessons for school counselors, yet established guidelines for training and practice are lacking (Buchanan et al., 2017; Haskins, 2016). The purpose of this study was to create a consensus list of classroom management competencies for school counselors. The research question guiding this study was: Which classroom management competencies are important and effective for school counselors?

Scholars claim that classroom management is vital to the delivery of effective classroom lessons for school counselors, yet established guidelines for training and practice are lacking.

Method

When a consensus of expert opinions is needed to clarify or guide professional practice in a domain that lacks an established base of knowledge, the Delphi method is considered an appropriate choice (Dalkey & Helmer, 1963; Iqbal & Pipon-Young, 2009; Strear, 2017; Wiersma & Jurs, 2009). The Delphi technique has been used previously in school counseling research for a host of investigations, including defining students’ college readiness (Milsom & Dietz, 2009), generating strategies to deconstruct heteronormativity in education (Strear, 2017), and naming necessary components of classroom management preparation for school counselors in training (Geltner et al., 2011).

The current study consisted of three rounds of participant data collection with a purposive sample of school counseling classroom management experts. The goal was to construct a consensus list of competencies needed for effective classroom management by school counselors. In Round 1, we posed an open-ended question that invited the school counseling classroom management experts to delineate as many classroom management competencies for school counselors as possible. The research team qualitatively coded these responses to produce items that the school counseling expert panelists then rated in Rounds 2 and 3. Afterward, the three authors analyzed the final list, finding 12 themes.

Participants

An essential aspect of Delphi research is the creation of the panel of experts concerning the topic to be examined (Colburn, Grothaus, Hays, & Milliken, 2016). Following Delphi tradition, we chose a purposive sample of participants from identified experts on classroom management for school counselors (Skulmoski & Hartman, 2007). Inclusion for the expert panel consisted of individuals who had practiced school counseling for at least 2 years and who also met one or more of the following criteria: (a) taught a class, (b) facilitated a training, (c) published an article, or (d) presented at a state, regional, or national conference about classroom curriculum or management. To identify experts, we conducted a literature search on classroom management for school counselors to identify potential participants for the study (n = 24). We also compiled a list of school counseling program directors (n = 196) of institutions accredited by the Council for Accreditation of Counseling and Related Educational Programs (CACREP) and invited them to suggest potential participants.

After receiving institutional review board approval, we contacted 223 identified potential participants through e-mail and provided an overview of the study and informed consent information. We also sought qualified participants through Internet postings (i.e., CESNET, Interest Network for Professional Counselors in Schools, ASCA Scene, Linked In School Counselor Network/ASCA/Education Research and Statistical Analysis). These efforts yielded the 34 participants who served as the expert panel for the first round of the Delphi procedure. Attrition, which is expected in Delphi research (Colburn et al., 2016), reduced the number of school counseling classroom management experts responding in each round (i.e., Round 2 = 19 participants, Round 3 = 12 participants). In general, the initial and final expert panel composition was similar across demographic categories. Participants were mostly White/Caucasian (88% initial round, 92% final round), women (82% initial, 83% final), and aged 30–59 (79% initial, 75% final). Table 1 details the demographics and expertise of participants during each round of data collection.

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Table 1.

Demographics and Expertise Composition of Panel per Round.

Category	Variables	Round 1	Round 2	Round 3
Gender	Female	28	16	10
	Male	6	3	2
Age	21–29	1	1	1
	30–39	8	5	3
	40–49	10	3	3
	50–59	9	6	3
	60+	6	4	2
Race/ethnicity	Black or African American	2	1	1
	Multiracial or multiethnic	1	0	0
	White/Caucasian	30	18	11
	Caucasian Hispanic	1	0	0
Number of experts (could have served in multiple positions)/average number of years in school level or position	Elementary school counselor	24/6.83	12/6.42	8/6.38
	Middle school counselor	20/4.65	9/5.22	5/6.2
	High school counselor	18/5.5	6/3.67	2/4
	Counselor educator	26/8.08	13/10.00	9/9.56
	School counselor supervisor	21/7.76	10/8.20	7/8.86
	Teacher (PK–12)	15/4.67	3/3.33	2/3.5
Number of courses taught on classroom management for school counselors	0	6	3	2
	1–3	16	9	4
	4–6	3	1	1
	7–9	2	0	0
	10+	7	6	5
Number of trainings facilitated on classroom guidance or management for school counselors	0	13	8	5
	1–3	14	6	2
	4–6	3	2	2
	7–9	0	0	0
	10+	4	3	3
Number of publications on classroom guidance or management for school counselors	0	23	10	6
	1–3	9	7	4
	4–6	0	0	0
	7–9	1	1	1
	10+	1	1	1
Number of presentations on classroom guidance or management	0	18	10	7
	1–3	7	5	3
	4–6	3	1	0
	7–9	3	1	0
	10+	3	2	2
Classroom management training received	Average coursework hours	12.53	9.26	8.92
	Average workshop hours	19.14	20.05	27.08

Composing the Final List

To establish the final expert panel consensus, the first author applied the preset criteria to the group means and standard deviations of the 122 items after Round 3 was completed, removing those items with either a mean less than 4.00 or a standard deviation greater than .85. The resulting final list comprised 81 competencies (see Table 2). Use of NVivo and a consensus analysis process by the three authors resulted in all the items being grouped into one of 12 themes.

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Table 2.

Classroom Management Competencies for School Counselors.

Theme	Competency	Mean (M)	Standard Deviation (SD)
Interacting with students	1. Building rapport (respectful, trusting, appropriate, positive relationships) with students while also maintaining control of the classroom	4.83	.39
	2. Demonstrating care and concern for students	4.83	.39
	3. Explaining who you are the first time you enter the classroom	4.83	.39
	4. Gaining and maintaining student attention	4.83	.39
	5. Encouraging and acknowledging students’ contributions	4.75	.45
	6. Recognizing the power of language and using it in a supportive, positive manner	4.67	.49
	7. Stimulating effective classroom discussions, using props when necessary/appropriate	4.67	.49
	8. Using active listening and empathic responding	4.58	.51
	9. Calling on students by their names	4.58	.67
	10. Encouraging positive social interaction	4.58	.67
	11. Using open, encouraging, supportive, developmentally appropriate language with students	4.50	.67
	12. Using universalizing, linking, and connecting to show similarities among student ideas and opinions	4.42	.67
	13. Reflecting feeling	4.33	.65
	14. Reframing	4.33	.65
	15. Fostering student self-expression	4.25	.45
	16. Involving students in an end-of-lesson or take-home activity to reinforce the message of the lesson	4.17	.72
Designing classroom lessons	1. Designing lessons to be relevant, including encouraging students to reflect about how it applies to their lives	4.83	.58
	2. Organizing and structuring lessons so they flow	4.75	.45
	3. Varying presentation format including technology when appropriate	4.67	.49
	4. Reinforcing earlier lessons in order to build students’ skill levels	4.58	.51
	5. Thorough preparation of lessons that have a clear focus, including use of goal statements and measurable learning objectives	4.50	.52
	6. Designing lessons that are engaging for students	4.42	.51
	7. Ability to link classroom guidance lessons to state standards, current classroom content, the school mission, and program missions	4.42	.51
	8. Aligning lesson plan objectives with American School Counselor Association and state-level guidance competencies	4.42	.51
	9. Employing short- and long-term planning	4.42	.67
	10. Planning lessons based upon knowledge of subject matter, students, the community, and curriculum goals	4.25	.75
Assessing student understanding	1. Providing appropriate guided group and independent practice	4.67	.49
	2. Ongoing assessment of learning (diagnostic, formative, and summative)	4.50	.52
	3. Summarizing student responses frequently	4.50	.52
	4. Clarifying	4.42	.67
	5. Knowing and using appropriate accommodations for students with positive behavior support plans, IEP, or 504 plans	4.42	.79
	6. Ability to discern whether students are “getting it”	4.33	.65
	7. Asking before telling in order to identify gaps in student subject matter knowledge	4.25	.75
Counselor behavior and demeanor	1. Modeling appropriate behavior through effort, enthusiasm, attitude, initiative, and passion	4.83	.39
	2. Demonstrating professional demeanor	4.75	.45
	3. Using attentive posture, positive facial expressions, eye contact, and other nonverbals	4.67	.49
	4. Demonstrating unconditional positive regard	4.67	.65
	5. Using humor and levity to keep students’ interest level high	4.58	.67
	6. Using professional oral and written skills	4.42	.67
	7. Drawing out	4.00	.74
Meeting the needs of all students	1. Believing that all children can learn	4.83	.39
	2. Willingness to go into classrooms at all levels regularly	4.75	.62
	3. Using instructional strategies that are appropriate for the subject matter	4.67	.49
	4. Using a variety of instructional strategies to encourage critical thinking and problem-solving skills	4.58	.51
	5. Using multiple and explicit explanations of concepts or skills	4.58	.67
	6. Creating and/or adapting classroom guidance lessons that meet the learning needs of all students and support their intellectual, social, and personal development	4.50	.52
	7. Differentiating instruction based on student learning styles	4.50	.67
Responding to student behavior	1. Responding appropriately to student feedback (e.g., using respectful language and behavior—especially when being challenged)	4.83	.39
	2. Using proximity to address minor behavioral issues	4.58	.67
	3. Using strategies to reengage students who are off task	4.50	.52
	4. Redirecting students to alternative, less problematic behaviors	4.25	.45
	5. Avoiding accidental reinforcement of inappropriate behavior	4.25	.75
	6. Sanctioning behavior, not the student	4.25	.75
	7. Using cutting-off techniques for students who dominate conversation or might reveal more information than recommended in the large group setting	4.00	.85
Collaborating/consulting with others	1. Actively seeking out opportunities to grow professionally	4.58	.51
	2. Including and valuing all students and their families	4.42	.67
	3. Engaging in self-reflection on instructional effectiveness (e.g., use a recording to review effectiveness with a supervisor)	4.42	.67
	4. Seeking out professional literature, colleagues, and other resources to support one’s development as a learner and instructor	4.42	.67
	5. Engaging parents whenever possible (e.g., have students seek parent input)	4.00	.85
Characteristics of the counselor	1. Being patient	4.83	.39
	2. Being tactful yet firm when needed	4.75	.45
	3. Being genuine, authentic, and real	4.75	.62
	4. Invigorating—displaying high energy	4.50	.52
	5. Flexibility—maintaining/modifying the focus of the lesson as necessary using problem-solving and decision-making models to respond to emergent needs	4.33	.65
Maintaining lesson structure	1. Organizing and using time, space, and materials effectively	4.75	.45
	2. Using effective strategies for managing transitions (e.g., warm up activity to introduce lesson, no down time)	4.75	.45
	3. Summarizing objectives to create closure for the lesson	4.58	.67
	4. Having a well-structured lesson that includes an agenda with a time frame	4.58	.79
	5. Beginning and ending on time	4.33	.49
Multicultural competence, sensitivity, and awareness	1. Being aware of bias in the classroom and finding ways to minimize its impact	4.67	.49
	2. Demonstrating and promoting multicultural awareness, knowledge, and skills	4.67	.49
	3. Teaching in a culturally responsive manner	4.67	.49
	4. Utilizing culturally sensitive materials, activities, and language	4.50	.52
	5. Valuing multiple points of view and methods of inquiry	4.33	.65
Knowing and utilizing classroom behavior management	1. Using positive and proactive behavior management techniques	4.83	.39
	2. Knowing evidence-based practices in classroom behavioral management and curriculum materials for guidance lessons	4.67	.49
	3. Understanding the goals of students’ misbehavior	4.58	.51
	4. Being knowledgeable about the school behavioral management system	4.58	.51
Creating classroom rules	1. Ability to set boundaries and limits	4.42	.67
	2. Developing and clearly communicating on a regular basis positively stated, written, understandable, developmentally appropriate classroom expectations and rules	4.42	.67
	3. Teaching students the necessary social skills needed to engage in the classroom guidance activities	4.42	.67

Results

This Delphi study used a panel of school counseling professionals with expertise in classroom management to create a consensus list of classroom management competencies for school counselors. The research question guiding this study was: Which classroom management competencies are important and effective for school counselors? After three rounds of data collection, the panel of experts agreed upon a list of 81 competencies that met the predetermined thresholds for inclusion in the final list of classroom management competencies for school counselors (i.e., a mean of 4.0 or greater and a standard deviation of .85 or less).

This Delphi study used a panel of school counseling professionals with expertise in classroom management to create a consensus list of classroom management competencies for school counselors.

The authors then used NVivo and individual and consensus analysis to arrange these items into 12 broad themes: (a) interacting with students; (b) designing classroom lessons; (c) assessing student understanding; (d) counselor behavior and demeanor; (e) meeting the needs of all students; (f) responding to student behavior; (g) collaborating/consulting with others; (h) characteristics of the counselor; (i) maintaining lesson structure; (j) knowing and utilizing classroom behavior management; (k) multicultural competence, sensitivity, and awareness; and (l) creating classroom rules. The two most populated themes were interacting with students (with 16 items) and designing classroom lessons (with 10 items; see Table 2).

Prevention was a prevalent topic within the 12 themes. Arguably, only one theme is reactive, responding to student behavior, containing seven competencies (less than 12% of the total). In contrast, a majority of both the themes and the competencies reflect proactive steps. For example, within the theme maintaining lesson structure, “using effective strategies for managing transitions” denotes preplanning on the part of the school counselor. Similarly, the theme interacting with students endorses “building rapport with students,” an action that might lessen the need to react by responding to student behavior.

These two themes and the competency of building rapport also point to the importance of relationships in classroom management. Within the themes, some examples of the 16 competencies in interacting with students included: “demonstrating care and concern for students”; “explaining who you are the first time you enter the classroom”; “recognizing the power of language and using it in a supportive, positive, manner”; “stimulating effective classroom discussions”; “encouraging positive social interaction”; “reflecting feelings”; and “fostering student self-expression.” In line with basic counseling skills, “drawing out,” “demonstrating unconditional positive regard,” and “using humor” within the theme counselor behavior and demeanor are relational. Beyond student relationships, school counselors “engaging parents whenever possible” falls within the broader theme of collaborating/consulting with others. “Valuing multiple points of view and methods of inquiry” builds relationships, as do the other four competencies within the theme multicultural competence, sensitivity, and awareness.

From the initial listing of competencies after Round 1, 41 items did not make the final list due to the predetermined thresholds. Twenty-three of these 41 had a mean rating of 4.0 or greater, which met the criterion, but also had a standard deviation that was above the preestablished criterion (indicating a wider than acceptable range of responses). Some items that did not make the list are notable due to their congruence with items previously endorsed in the most recently published study (Buchanan et al., 2017). For example, items “Using your own classroom management plan, independent of classroom teacher and administrator plans” and “Utilizing a classroom management plan that is congruent with the classroom teacher’s plan” failed to meet the threshold for inclusion. See Table 2 for the full list of competencies, grouped into themes, listed from most to least populated.

Discussion

Counselors have implemented classroom lessons for the better part of the last century (Ziomek-Daigle, 2016). Given the documented association between delivering the school counseling curriculum and positive student outcomes, and the importance of classroom management to the success of the curriculum, the relative paucity of investigations into this important role is puzzling. Indeed, coverage of this competence in the CACREP (2016) standards is limited to three words of one standard for school counselor preparation (Section 5, Standard 3.c.). Meanwhile, the ASCA Ethical Standards (2016) offer no competencies specific to classroom management.

To begin addressing the gap in the professional literature, this Delphi study created a consensus list of expert-identified classroom management competencies for school counselors. The themes of these competencies align with the school reform movement’s emphasis on rigor, responsiveness to learner’s needs, and assessment of effectiveness (Goodnough et al., 2015). This research expands upon earlier school counseling research that described novice school counselors’ experiences with classroom management (Buchanan et al., 2017), reported the results of a Delphi study to determine curriculum components needed for training school counselors to be effective classroom managers (Geltner et al., 2011), and shared middle school counselors’ ideas regarding effective techniques for managing student behavior (Quarto, 2007).

Studies by Geltner et al. (2011) and Quarto (2007) produced lists of descriptive behaviors and areas of necessary knowledge. Overall, the current list of consensus competencies created for this study featured congruence with approximately half of both the Geltner et al. (2011) and Quarto (2007) results. Areas of difference may be explained in part by either divergent foci or methodology for each study. For the investigation by Geltner et al. (2011), the expert panelists did not respond to an open-ended question designed to elicit their ideas in Round 1. Instead they rated and rerated items preselected from the group counseling and education literature. Some of the resulting items appear to reflect their origin in the group counseling literature (e.g., “legal considerations for group work” and “terminating”) and were not replicated in the current study. The Quarto (2007) inquiry sought to determine middle school counselors’ means of managing student behavior. The resulting techniques listed tend to be skewed toward responding to undesirable student behavior (e.g., “placing the student in a time-out”). In contrast, the consensus list produced by the current study tends to emphasize preventive measures (e.g., “using effective strategies for managing transitions”).

The Buchanan et al. (2017) phenomenological exploration of novice school counselors’ experiences accessed a group of seven participants who would not qualify for expert status in the current study. Although the Buchanan et al.’s study results reflect the concerns and ideas of a different strata of school counselors, a facsimile of almost half of the Buchanan et al.’s study results are present in the competencies constructed in the current study (e.g., “building rapport with students”). Overall, the representation of nearly half of the competencies from the three recent studies related to school counselor classroom management would seem to both validate the current list’s appropriateness and indicate that the unique focus of this study does address a gap in the literature.

Furthermore, the competencies identified in both the teaching and school counseling literature regarding classroom management were generally reflected in the results presented here, such as building positive relationships with students (Blake, 2017; Buchanan et al., 2017; Kwok, 2017; Skiba et al., 2016), use of both specific classroom management techniques and school-wide systems of evidence-based classroom management practices like positive behavioral interventions and supports (Ficarra & Quinn, 2014; Goodman-Scott & Grothaus, 2017; Moore et al., 2017; Quarto, 2007; Sanetti et al., 2018), the need for engaging and relevant lessons (Buchanan et al., 2017; Skiba et al., 2016), and sharing specific feedback with students while also seeking their responses (Blake, 2017; Geltner et al., 2011; Mitchell et al., 2017). Also, with the documented biases that teachers and school counselors harbor (Cole & Grothaus, 2014; Endo, 2017; Geltner et al., 2011), the call for culturally competent classroom management was endorsed by this study. Finally, the call for career-long engagement in professional development regarding classroom management was endorsed in the extant literature and in this study (Buchanan et al., 2017; Kwok, 2018; Stough et al., 2015).

When compared to teaching literature on classroom management, some of the themes identified in this study aligned well. For example, in a seminal study validating a test for teacher competency, Gold and Holodynski (2015) rated classroom management along three factors (i.e., monitoring behavior to prevent interruptions, managing momentum and maintaining flow, and establishing shared rules and routines) that had been well established as important to classroom management for teachers. These three could arguably align with several items under the following themes in the current study: responding to student behavior, maintaining lesson structure, and creating classroom rules. Finally, the fact that several current studies of school counselor classroom management endorsed items not clearly described in the teaching and education literature on this topic may further support that prior teaching experience is not necessary for competent school counseling performance (e.g., Bringman & Sang Min, 2008).

Several items from the current study appeared to be distinct from other recent explorations of classroom management competency (e.g., “demonstrating care and concern for students”; “explaining who you are the first time you enter the classroom”; “recognizing the power of language and using it in a supportive, positive, manner”; “stimulating effective classroom discussions”; “encouraging positive social interaction”; “fostering student self-expression”; “demonstrating unconditional positive regard”; “using humor”; and “valuing multiple points of view and methods of inquiry”). Several of these items appear to reflect a broader or more holistic view of education, focusing on creating facilitative conditions beyond just specific management techniques one could apply in a classroom. Overall, a sizable portion of the competencies produced by the expert panel for this study appeared to be more preventive, relational, general, and positive than previous empirical work on this topic, which featured more specific or prescriptive interventions.

A sizable portion of the competencies…appeared to be more preventive, relational, general, and positive than previous empirical work on this topic, which featured more specific or prescriptive interventions.

Limitations

Certain limitations provide context for these findings. As with any panel, the composition of this expert panel likely influenced the findings. Regarding race, gender, and age, White females aged 30–59 were overrepresented, as is currently the case in the school counseling profession. A more diverse or otherwise different expert panel might have crafted a different list of competencies. Attrition of the participants over the course of the study, although common in Delphi research (Colburn et al., 2016), was significant. Only 12 experts completed all three rounds, less than half of the initial number. Experts who previously taught in P–12 schools had disproportionately higher attrition than participants without prior teaching experience. Finally, several participants indicated authoring articles about classroom management. The nature of these publications is not clear since so few were found in the peer-reviewed literature. These limitations should be considered when contemplating the generalizability or transferability of the results of this study.

Implications and Suggestions for Future Research

School counselors and school counselors in training, counselor educators, supervisors, school administrators, and school counseling associations may benefit from the information generated by this study. First, these results can be an important step toward creating a codified list of classroom management competencies for school counselors. The dissemination of these competencies can assist in informing school counseling stakeholders about the appropriate school counselor roles, knowledge, and skills needed for the delivery of the school counseling core curriculum.

The dissemination of these competencies can assist in informing school counseling stakeholders about the appropriate school counselor roles, knowledge, and skills needed for the delivery of the school counseling core curriculum.

For counselor educators, the competencies created can build on the efforts of Geltner et al. (2011) to insure comprehensive content coverage, appropriate and ample supervised practice, and ability assessments for school counseling students prior to licensure. Accrediting bodies (e.g., CACREP) can incorporate key competencies into standards and expectations for school counselor preparation. School counselor associations at the local, state, and national levels can use the competencies to ensure that sufficient and efficiently targeted education efforts are offered to school counseling practitioners. Best practices in the realm of classroom management can be included in school counselor association documents (e.g., ethical standards, position statements, the ASCA National Model) and education and advocacy efforts (e.g., discussions with administrators and legislators). Finally, school counselors and counselor educators with expertise in classroom management could create professional development webinars and other platforms for sharing expertise, addressing concerns, and answering questions about effective classroom management for school counselors.

School and district administrators and supervisors could use the inventory of competencies to inform their professional development planning for school counselors. For example, school counselors and teachers together could engage in professional development regarding the competencies that are congruent for both groups of professionals. Likewise, specific educational efforts could be targeted for each group based on competencies that are distinct. School counselors who exhibit exemplary classroom management competence could be given the wherewithal and resources to assist other school counselors in their districts to enhance their effectiveness in this vital arena. Finally, the ASCA (2012) School Counselor Performance Appraisal includes delivery of school counseling core curriculum lessons. Thus, school supervisors and administrators could use the list to assess a school counselor’s effectiveness in classroom management as part of the delivery of the school counseling core curriculum.

Supervisors may discuss these competencies when offering support for school counselors regarding classroom management and encourage their supervisees to use this list as a self- or peer-assessment tool. Discussing these competencies with school administrators could also be advantageous for school counselors to help establish appropriate expectations regarding classroom management.

School counselors can use the competencies (and recent research documenting the effectiveness of the school counseling core curriculum, such as Whiston et al., 2011) to educate and advocate with stakeholders for the resources, time, and support needed to effectively implement the curriculum. The competencies also may guide development of appropriate expectations and evaluations of school counselor classroom management skills and techniques. Finally, the list may inform individual school counselors’ professional development efforts based on self-assessments of competence.

In the future, condensing the list of classroom management competencies for school counselors might be beneficial. Future research could focus on whether each competency is a discrete entity. We found both congruent and distinct competencies regarding classroom management for school counselors and for teachers; therefore, future research could explore common and dissimilar competencies for these two professions, perhaps with the aim of more clearly establishing identities, roles, and functions for both groups. Researchers might also develop separate competency lists for elementary, middle, and high school counselors. Future researchers could observe school counselors in the classroom to determine specific effective classroom management techniques in each of the areas mentioned in our findings. They could also perform additional analysis (e.g., exploratory factor analysis) on the data provided here. Finally, scholars could establish a quantifiable measurement of classroom management competence for assessing the performance of both school counseling students and working professionals. This could provide invaluable assistance in delineating and effectively targeting areas of strength and struggles and might also guide remediation efforts. As with comprehensive school counseling programs, including the specific services delivered by school counselors, accurate assessments can increase accountability and help steer future efforts to enhance school counselor effectiveness and productivity.

Conclusion

Despite the established importance of classroom management for effective implementation of classroom lessons, the prior research for school counselors did not attempt to establish standards or best practices. This Delphi-derived list of school counselor-focused classroom management competencies can help with addressing this gap in the literature. We hope this study will invite further attention, research, discussion, and initiatives regarding classroom management competence for school counselors.