Perceptual and Motor Skills

This study of perceptual and motor skills in soccer players was conducted on adolescent males. The goals were to monitor the development of general perceptual motor skills in nonsoccer-playing and soccer-playing groups (n = 245), to examine the relationship between physical maturity and general perceptual motor skills (n = 41), and to compare the differences in general perceptual motor skills between groups with different soccer expertise (n = 142). The measured variables were simple reaction time, peripheral awareness, eye–hand–foot coordination, and testosterone blood level. The results suggested that general perceptual motor skills improved with age, the development of these skills was related to participants' blood testosterone concentration (especially between 12 and 14 years), and general perceptual motor skills improved with soccer expertise. However, the differences between subelite and elite soccer players were not meaningful enough to encourage practitioners to test general perceptual motor skills on a large scale when evaluating the potential of young players.

In studies of bilingual word processing, the primary focus has been on whether various bilingual lexical information is selectively or nonselectively activated (Doctor & Klein, 1992; Van Heuven, Dijkstra, & Grainger, 1998; Dijkstra, Grainger, & Van Heuven, 1999; De Groot, Delmaar, & Lupker, 2000). Specifically, when a reader processes second language, the lexical properties of the first language can influence the processing of the second language, or vice versa.

The aim of the study was to examine the utility of perceived tiredness to predict cardiac autonomic response to overload among field hockey players during the 2006 World Cup. The French Society for Sports Medicine (SFMS) questionnaire was administered at the start of the Cup to evaluate perception of tiredness. Autonomic function was assessed nine days later at the semifinal match by time and frequency domain analysis of heart rate variability. An anxiety questionnaire was administered so that the effect of precompetitive anxiety on heart rate variability could be controlled. Results showed a negative correlation between perceived tiredness scores and time domain indexes, and a positive correlation of perceived tiredness scores and the high frequency component ratio (LF/HF ratio) of heart rate variability. Anxiety did not influence the precompetitive cardiac response despite somatic anxiety's correlation with sympathetic response (LF/HF ratio) and tiredness scores. Perceived tiredness predicted the autonomic cardiac response to competitive overload. Thus, the perceived tiredness assessment would be a good early marker of fatigue and overload states during competition.

In an earlier study, relations of nonverbal abilities with several bodily measures such as height, weight, and lung capacity were observed. The present aim was estimation of associations of muscle power and lung function with simple eye–hand reaction time. Sex differences for muscle power were significant even with the covariates of height, weight, and age included; however, these disappeared for lung functions (forced vital capacity and peak expiratory flow) and reaction time. The effects of leg power, forced vital capacity, and peak expiratory flow on the left eye–hand reaction time were significant after adjustment for height, weight, right- and left-hand powers and age. The positive effect of exercise may be especially associated with the right brain activity or left hand speed.

The association of anthropometric variables, training volume, and prerace experience with race time was investigated in 25 male mountain ultra-marathoners (M age = 44.5 yr., SD = 7.0; M body mass = 73.0 kg, SD = 7.8; M body height = 1.78 m, SD = 0.07; M Body Mass Index = 22.9 kg/m², SD = 1.8) in a 7-day mountain ultra-marathon over 350 km with a total 11,000 m of altitude gained and lost. The relationship of anthropometry (body mass, body height, Body Mass Index, percent body fat, circumferences of limbs, and thicknesses of skin-folds), training, and prerace experience (years as active runner, average training volume in hours and kilometres per week, average running speed in training, and personal best time in marathon running) with total race time was investigated using bivariate correlation analysis. None of the variables of anthropometry were related to total race time. Average speed in running during training and personal best time in marathon running were associated with total race time. Speed in running during training was correlated with personal best time in marathon running. The finding that average speed in running during training and personal best marathon time were related to race performance suggests that training and especially intensity might be of increased importance in these ultra-runners compared to anthropometry.

When teaching a complex sequence, the sequence is often chunked into components; however, this strategy may not always benefit learning, but may be detrimental. The hypothesis is that this occurs because chunking deprives learners of compound cues that could aid recall. To test this, participants learned 9-item movement sequences, either as three 3-item chunks or as one 9-item series. To undermine compound cueing, some sequences had several movements in common. Learning a sequence in chunks impaired motor skill acquisition only when participants could have exploited compound cues; it also led participants to adopt an alternative recall strategy, which transferred to novel sequences even though this was detrimental to recall.

To examine stance during the measurement of balance ability, this study aimed to clarify the differences and relationships between balance ability in one-legged (dominant or nondominant leg) and two-legged stances in 25 typical male adults and 25 male soccer players. Balance ability was evaluated with four sway factors: sway velocity, anterior-posterior sway, lateral sway, and high-frequency sway factors. The one-legged stance was more unstable than the two-legged stance, the balance abilities related to two-legged and one-legged stances differed, and the balance abilities related to dominant-legged and nondominant-legged stances were similar. The one-legged stance, which was difficult to maintain stably, may be useful in the measurement of static balance ability in young people.

This study compared differentiated Ratings of Perceived Exertion (RPE) for the chest (RPE-Chest) and legs (RPE-Legs) and undifferentiated ratings (RPE-Overall) between cigarette smokers (n = 10) and nonsmokers (n = 10) during graded, peak cycle exercise. Linear regression analyses expressed RPE-Chest, RPE-Leg, and RPE-Overall as a function of VO₂ for smokers and nonsmokers. RPE equivalent to 50, 70, and 90% VO₂peak were compared between. Chest, Leg, and Overall RPE were similar at each % VO₂peak. In the combined smokers and nonsmokers, RPE-Chest was lower (p<.05) than the RPE-Overall at each % VO₂peak. RPE-Leg did not differ from RPE-Overall at 50% VO₂peak, but was higher (p<.05) at 70% and 90% VO₂peak. These results validate Assumption 4 for application of the Borg 15-category scale in that this assumption is also valid for differentiated RPE. Smoking did not influence the intensity of differentiated or undifferentiated RPE during graded cycle exercise.

The purpose of the present study was to examine the validity of St. George's Respiratory Questionnaire (SGRQ), a disease-specific survey of health-related quality of life, in adult Greek patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD). Questionnaire scores, dyspnea scores, spirometry values, and demographic data were collected from 72 patients with a diagnosis of COPD exacerbation. Follow-up visits were performed at 1-mo. intervals for the first 3 mo. after discharge and a final visit was performed 6 mo. after discharge. 27 (37.5%) patients were readmitted during the follow-up period. Recovery after exacerbation was prolonged and questionnaire scores were sensitive to the patients' health-status changes across time. The SGRQ discriminated COPD patients according to disease stage, and the SGRQ scores during the recovery course were related to readmission. Correlations between the SGRQ and %FEV₁ were not significant during exacerbation but a significant negative correlation was observed during the stable phase of the disease. The SGRQ appeared to have acceptable discriminant and concurrent validities in Greek COPD patients who differed according to their exacerbation stage.

In about 80% of youth obesity-prevention programs, significant decrease in Body Mass Index has not been observed. A meta-analysis of 16 trials of the 12-wk. Youth Fit For Life intervention suggested better success; however, the effects for children who were overweight or obese remain unclear because data from participants of all weights were aggregated. Also unclear were effects on increasing free-time physical activity, a goal of this and most obesity-prevention treatments. Of the 200 African American pre-adolescents assessed in the present investigation, reductions in Body Mass Index associated with Youth Fit For Life were larger for participants who were overweight and obese, but these two groups did not differ. Voluntary physical activity at baseline was inversely related to change in voluntary physical activity (r = –.53, p<.001). Regression analyses suggested improvements in theoretical dimensions of self-efficacy significantly predicted increases in voluntary physical activity especially well for participants initially classified as insufficiently active (R² = .61). These data clarified and extended findings to date for the Youth Fit For Life treatment, but replications across age groups, ethnicities, and administration formats are required.

Individual differences in visuospatial abilities were investigated in experienced basketball players compared with nonathletes. Most research shows that experts and novices do not differ on basic cognitive ability tests. Nevertheless, there are some equivocal findings indicating there are differences in basic cognitive abilities such as attention. The goal of the present research was to investigate team-ball athletes in regard to their visuospatial abilities. 112 male college students (54 basketball players, 58 nonathlete college students) were tested in their spatial capacity with the Corsi Block-tapping Task. No differences in spatial capacity were evident between basketball players and nonathlete college students. The results are discussed in the context of the expert performance approach and individual difference research.

Sex differences on visuospatial tests are among the most reliably replicated. It is unclear to what extent these performance differences reflect underlying differences in skills or testing factors. To assess whether testing medium and response format affect visuospatial sex differences, performances of introductory psychology students (100 men, 104 women) were examined on a visuospatial task presented in paper-and-pencil and tablet computer forms. Both sexes performed better when tested on paper, although men outperformed women. The introduction of an open-ended component to the visuospatial task eliminated sex differences when prior spatial experiences were controlled, but men outperformed women when prior spatial experiences were not considered. In general, the open-ended version and computerized format of the test diminished performance, suggesting that response format and medium are testing factors that influence visuospatial abilities.

The purpose of the present study was to describe kinetically and kinematically the control patterns of wheelchair wheelies, to clarify the relation between motion of the wheelchair and floor reaction force, to reveal movement strategies of the task, and to find useful parameters to understand the control and learning process of the skill. 10 healthy female Japanese students who were able to perform a 2-min. stationary wheelie participated in the experiments. Analysis of the 20-sec. wheelie performances suggested that (1) Center of Pressure is not a fundamental parameter for wheelie balance control, but may be the result of the control, (2) the anteroposterior component of the floor reaction force is a fundamental parameter for analyzing the control of a wheelchair wheelie, and (3) angular velocity is used in the control of wheelie balance as a cue.

This study evaluated the effects of Progressive Self-focus Meditation with 42 volunteers (M age = 46.0 yr., SD = 14.1) allocated to two groups: one that had weekly 1-hr. training sessions in the practice for 5 wk. and one waiting-list group. Participants were evaluated before and after 5 wk. on the Beck Anxiety Inventory, Beck Depression Inventory, the Digit Symbol subtest of the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale, and the Mindfulness Attention Awareness Scale. After 5 wk., a significant reduction in scores on depression was found in the Meditation group as well as an increase in attention in comparison with the waiting-list Control group.

This field-based study analyzed effects of a deliberate-play training program in basketball on tactical game intelligence and tactical creativity. 22 youth basketball players, ages 10 to 12 years, completed basketball training in one of two equal-sized groups. The deliberate-play training program contained unstructured game forms in basketball. The placebo group played in traditional structured basketball game forms. Tactical intelligence and creativity was assessed before and after an 18-lesson intervention. Analysis showed significant training improvement only for the deliberate-play group. In addition, this outperformance of the placebo group was not only observed for tactical creativity but also for tactical intelligence.

Two experiments were conducted to assess the effects of verbal interference on categorical perception. The task involved simultaneous color discrimination with no memory demands, and a concurrent Stroop task was employed as verbal interference. Exp. 1 demonstrated that categorical perception was eliminated by an incongruent color word (i.e., Stroop interference), but not by a congruent color word or nonword fixation crosses. Exp. 2 demonstrated that categorical perception decreased when the intensity of Stroop Interference was increased, and it increased when correct verbal coding was enhanced. These results provide further evidence that interfering with verbal coding disrupts categorical perception, suggesting that verbal coding has a crucial role in categorical “perception.” It is also suggested that categorical perception could occur at the encoding or decision level but not at the storage or memory level. The possible mechanisms for categorical perception are also discussed.

The purpose of this study was to compare the coincidence-anticipation timing and reaction times (RT) of 10- to 14-year-old tennis and table tennis players and examine possible sex differences. 107 (51.4%) tennis and 101 (48.6%) table tennis players participated in this study. Players were compared on coincidence-anticipation timing and reaction time. Tennis players performed with less error in the coincidence-anticipation timing task than table tennis players, whereas table tennis players had lower mean reaction time than tennis players. It was also found that male players made fewer errors in the coincidence-anticipation timing task than their female counterparts.

This study compared the effects of mental practice, physical practice, and no practice on the performance and retention of a novel throwing task. Research supports the effectiveness of mental practice on performance; however, retention of learning has not been adequately investigated. Participants were 152 students ages 18 to 44 years (M = 20.5, SD = 2.9), who completed a pretest, posttest, and five-week delayed retention test of dart throwing with the nonpreferred hand. In the practice phase, participants completed 50 mental practice or physical practice trials of the darts task or 50 trials of a catching task. Results indicated that overall scores increased from pretest to posttest and retention test, and decreased from posttest to retention test, but that these effects did not differ for type of practice. The findings suggest equal learning and retention of learning for novel throwing tasks for control, mental practice, and physical practice conditions; however, further research that considers issues raised is recommended.

Hand dominance in a group of Asian adults 60 to 89 years old was examined. Participants were independently living in the community; free of pain, injury, and disease of the upper limbs; and had no restrictions on use of upper extremities in daily activities. The grip strengths of both hands were measured with a Jamar hand dynamometer. Analysis showed that being male, of younger age, and using the dominant hand were significantly associated with stronger grip than being female, of older age, and using the nondominant hand. The dominant to nondominant grip ratio varies from 1.05 to 1.10 across age–sex subgroups.

Motor schemas are very attractive concepts; however, their development and internal structure appear difficult to probe and identify. The present study focuses on the development of a motor schema in constant practice. In four experiments, participants practiced bimanual juggling with three standard balls. During retention tests they were asked to juggle with standard (“practiced”) balls and nonstandard (“nonpracticed”) balls of different weight, shape, length, and size. Four juggling experiments were carried out. The participants achieved the best results juggling with the practiced balls in three experiments. During one experiment, they achieved better results juggling with nonpracticed balls. However, in all four experiments, a correlation was observed between the number of correct juggling sequences with standard balls and with nonpracticed balls. Scores presented as mean numbers of juggling cycles performed in retention tests revealed a gradient with its peak value for juggling with the practiced balls. In one experiment, the hypothetical gradient slope was steeper; however, a strong correlation between scores for juggling with practiced and nonpracticed balls was noted.

Kick performance, anthropometric characteristics, slalom, and linear running were assessed in 49 (24 elite, 25 nonelite) postpubertal indoor soccer players in order to (a) verify whether anthropometric characteristics and physical and technical capacities can distinguish players of different competitive levels, (b) compare the kicking kinematics of these groups, with and without a defined target, and (c) compare results on the assessments and coaches' subjective rankings of the players. Thigh circumference and specific technical capacities differentiated the players by level of play; cluster analysis correctly classified 77.5% of the players. The correlation between players' standardized measures and the coaches' rankings was 0.29. Anthropometric characteristics and physical capacities do not necessarily differentiate players at post-pubertal stages and should not be overvalued during early development. Considering the coaches' rankings, performance measures outside the specific game conditions may not be useful in identification of talented players.

Effects of shape, size, and chromaticity of stimuli on participants' errors when estimating the size of simultaneously presented standard and comparison stimuli were examined. 48 Taiwanese college students ages 20 to 24 years old (M = 22.3, SD = 1.3) participated. Analysis showed that the error for estimated size was significantly greater for those in the low-vision group than for those in the normal-vision and severe-myopia groups. The errors were significantly greater with green and blue stimuli than with red stimuli. Circular stimuli produced smaller mean errors than did square stimuli. The actual size of the standard stimulus significantly affected the error for estimated size. Errors for estimations using smaller sizes were significantly higher than when the sizes were larger. Implications of the results for graphics-based interface design, particularly when taking account of visually impaired users, are discussed.

This study comprised two experiments to examine the distracting effects of advertisement familiarity, location, and onset on the performance of a selective attention task. In Exp. 1, familiar advertisements presented in peripheral vision disrupted selective attention when the attention task was more demanding, suggesting that the distracting effect of advertisements is a product of task demands and advertisement familiarity and location. In Exp. 2, the onset of the advertisement shortly before, or after, the attention task captured attention and disrupted attentional performance. The onset of the advertisement before the attention task reduced target response time without an increase in errors and therefore facilitated performance. Despite being instructed to ignore the advertisements, the participants were able to recall a substantial proportion of the familiar advertisements. Implications for the presentation of advertisements during human–computer interaction were discussed.

This exploratory study inquires into the role fashionable clothing plays in the normalization process and others' perceptions of people with severe and profound intellectual disabilities. The research was conducted with a sample of 10 caregivers. Fashionable clothing and attention to grooming are perceived to aid the normalization process and help facilitate positive perceptions from others. Poor grooming and clothing that is ill-fitting, out of fashion, or dirty hinder the normalization process and likely influence negatively others' perceptions of persons with severe and profound intellectual disabilities.

Research confirms the long-standing clinical observation that patients with dysarthria exhibit variability in speech rate. Thus, modifying speech rate has been documented as one of the best treatment options for these patients. In this tutorial, several published rate control interventions for dysarthric speakers are presented. Studies discussed utilized various interventions, including pacing boards, alphabet board supplementation, visual and auditory feedback, cueing and pacing strategies, and delayed auditory feedback. Interventions discussed represent a hierarchy from “rigid” strategies, which impose maximal rate control, to techniques allowing for greater speech naturalness and independent rate control. All procedures are examined with respect to effectiveness in reducing rate, effect on intelligibility and prosody, training requirements, specific alterations made to speech rate, and other relevant aspects.

The relationship between running velocity and trunk rotation during normal running and running while dribbling was investigated in 7 male competitive basketball players and 7 male nonplayers. Participants performed a normal 20-m sprint and a 20-m sprint while dribbling a basketball. For the motion analysis, all individuals also performed normal running and running while dribbling at target of their maximal speed of sprinting and dribbling, respectively. Basketball players showed significantly smaller decreases in their running velocity from 85% maximal (target) sprint to 85% maximal (target) dribbling speeds than nonplayers. Furthermore, basketball players rotated their shoulders significantly more during target dribbling than during target running. For all participants, significant positive correlations were found between the decreases in running velocity and shoulder rotation. The results suggested that the basketball players' greater shoulder rotation during dribbling permits their running velocity to decrease less during target dribbling compared to a maximal sprint.