Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin

The conjunction fallacy occurs when, after reading about an introductory event a, participants rate a combination of two events (b _˄ c) as more likely than a single event b. It has been proposed that the fallacy is more likely to occur when the coherence of a, b, c—the extent to which the three events fit together to form a united and complete story—is greater than that of a, b. In the current research, participants were presented with a three-event sequence made to appear coherent or non-coherent. The events were presented in one of three modalities (verbal, physical, and musical) with two studies in each modality. Compared to chance, participants were more likely to commit the fallacy in the coherent condition and less likely to commit the fallacy in the non-coherent condition. Coherence can thus serve as a conduit by which different circumstances can induce the conjunction fallacy.

Relationship science currently lacks a theoretical approach to capture the variety of motivations potentially underlying the pursuit of romantic relationships. We introduce the Autonomous Motivation for Romantic Pursuit Scale (AMRPS) which conceptualizes and measures motivations ranging in levels of autonomy (from a motivation to intrinsic motivation), based on self-determination theory (SDT). In Study 1 (N = 1,280), we show how the motivations assessed using AMRPS relate to existing constructs implicated in romantic pursuit (e.g. fear of being single, commitment readiness), thereby organizing them into a coherent theoretical framework. In Study 2 (N = 3,186), we validate this approach using longitudinal data, showing singles who are higher in autonomous motivation for relationship pursuit are more likely to be partnered six months later. These studies demonstrate the usefulness of SDT for consolidating into one theoretical and measurement framework the variety of motivations (including an absence of motivation) for pursuing romantic relationships.

Abstract thinking and concrete thinking shape how we interpret and interact with the world. One of the most influential approaches to abstract and concrete construals is Construal Level Theory, which has primarily taken a situational approach to studying construal level. The current research develops the General Construal Questionnaire to measure individuals’ general tendencies toward abstract and concrete thinking, opening possibilities for new research that extends past the focus on situational construal. Distinguishing abstract and concrete construals as distinct factors reveals that they have unique effects. Abstract construal correlates with extraversion, openness to experience, a focus on the future, promotion, and desirability, a preference for cognition, tolerance for uncertainty, and a tendency to perceive similarities, stereotype, and evaluate. Concrete construal correlates with conscientiousness, a focus on the present, prevention, and feasibility, a preference for certainty and perfectionism, and a tendency to perceive differences and make daily progress.

Past research on intimate relationships suggests that exchange orientation—the tendency to expect direct reciprocation when providing a benefit—predicts lower relationship well-being. However, limited research has examined the long-term associations of this link or the effects of partner similarity in exchange orientation. The present research addressed this gap by employing a set of rigorous analyses on longitudinal data spanning 13 years from a national sample of romantic couples in Germany (N = 7,293 couples). Latent curve models with structured residuals (LCM-SR) revealed that romantic partners, on average, experienced a general decline in exchange orientation over the course of their relationship. Partners who showed slower declines in exchange orientation experienced steeper declines in relationship satisfaction. Within-person increases in exchange orientation predicted future decreases in relationship satisfaction. Dyadic response surface analyses (DRSA) indicated no evidence of similarity effects. Overall, these findings corroborate the adverse effects of exchange orientation on intimate relationships.

Adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) encompass a wide range of abuse, neglect, community violence, and household dysfunction occurring before the age of 18, and are related to multiple mental and behavioral health indicators in adulthood. ACEs research is frequently guided by a subtle, under-tested assumption: ACEs are assumed to be especially consequential because they happen during childhood. We sought to test this assumption with respect to adult attachment insecurity with a multinational adult sample (N = 7,135). We regressed attachment anxiety and avoidance on the age of first occurrence for 14 ACEs. We found that the age at which one is exposed to ACEs is generally unrelated to general and romantic adult attachment insecurity. However, the age of first occurrence is related to parental attachment, such that experiencing ACEs at an earlier age is associated with heightened parental insecurity. Implications for the ACEs and attachment literatures are discussed.

We examine how perceived automation and AI threats (the belief that advanced technology threatens humans’ career prospects) shape workers’ strategies for career preparation. In nine studies (N = 2,320; three preregistered), we find that perceived automation threat drives people to prioritize creative skills over technical and social skills. A pilot study revealed that people view creativity as less prone to automation and more likely to complement automation. Subsequent experiments confirmed that automation threat leads people to highlight creativity in job applications (Studies 1a–1c), leads STEM students and professional graphic designers to cultivate creative abilities (Studies 2a–2b), and increases jobseekers’ interest in companies that champion creativity (Study 3). People value creative skills in response to the automation threat even when reminded of generative AI’s ability for creativity (Studies 4a–4b). These results suggest that advanced technology steers individuals to prioritize creativity as a skill necessary to compete in the labor market.

In six experiments (N = 2,424), we tested whether group affiliation has a stronger influence on the automatic evaluation of close friends than on nonautomatic evaluation. In Experiments 1 to 5, women showed a stronger pro-women preference in their evaluation of close friends when measured with supposed measures of automatic evaluation (the Implicit Association Test [IAT] and the Sorting Paired Features task) than with a self-report measure. The IAT (but not the self-reported preference) was related to a difference in how close and deep participants perceived the relationship to be (Experiments 3 and 4), but not to self-reported gender identity (Experiment 5). The IAT/self-report discrepancy was the same toward acquaintances and close friends (Experiment 4). We conceptually replicated the discrepancy finding with friends from the ethnic or racial in-group versus out-group (Experiment 6). Our results suggest that even toward highly familiar individuals, people’s automatic in-group preference is stronger than their nonautomatic in-group preference.

People are increasingly asked to generate creative ideas for brands in campaigns intended to generate new ideas. We draw on and extend a growing stream of research suggesting that being creative can foster social connection by showing that generating creative ideas for a brand can strengthen self-brand connection. In six pre-registered experiments (N = 1,635), participants worked on either a creative or less-creative product idea generation task. Creative (vs. less-creative) idea generators reported feeling more connected to the brand (Studies 1A and 1B), and these effects manifested in real product choices (Study 4). The underlying psychological mechanism, perceived self-disclosure, emerged via both mediation (Study 2) and moderation (Study 3). In a high-powered replication (Study 5), we addressed alternative explanations including effort, engagement, brand liking, and willingness to pay. We discuss the implications of our findings for the broader possibility that being creative can foster social connection—a source of psychological well-being.

Despite the large literature on ideal partner preferences, the consequences of ideals have rarely been tested experimentally. We developed a conditioning paradigm that paired positive experiences with novel (“Reditry,” Study 1) and familiar (“youthfulness,” Study 2) traits to reliably manipulate ideal partner preferences among participants attracted to men. We then conducted the first experimental tests of four theoretical perspectives: motivated projection (ideals cause the belief that a partner possesses the trait); preference-matching (trait-weighting) (ideals cause satisfaction with a partner to the extent that people think their partner possesses the trait); perceiver effects (ideals cause people to believe everyone possesses that trait); and situation selection (ideals cause people to seek situations where they can meet partners with the trait). The motivated projection and situation selection accounts received very strong support, the perceiver effects account received some support, and the preference-matching (trait-weighting) account received support in one study. Implications for motivational processes in relationships are discussed.

Trust plays a fundamental role in almost every social domain, especially when society is facing multi-level threats. However, the impact of threats on trust and its underlying mechanism remains poorly examined. To address this gap, we conducted a series of studies with an array of methodologies spanning cross-cultural surveys, longitudinal designs, and experimental manipulations. Compelling evidence demonstrated that threats (particularly pandemics) precipitate a decline in levels of multiple forms of trust from interpersonal to institutional domains. Additionally, drawing on both correlational and causal methods (e.g., longitudinal design and priming manipulation), belief in a just world (BJW) mediates this relationship. The findings lay the groundwork for a universal Threats-BJW-Trust model of trust in times of crisis. This model extends its influence beyond the trust domain and holds profound implications for bolstering societal resilience and overall well-being.

The attachment system regulates behavior to maintain security and cope with insecurities. Although this necessitates the coordination of different attachment states, research on state-level dynamics is scarce. We used data from two ecological momentary assessment studies (Ns = 122 and 127) to examine cross-lagged effects between state attachment security, avoidance, and anxiety. We hypothesized dampening effects between the secure and insecure states. Furthermore, we expected trait-level attachment to moderate the state-level dynamics. Attachment states were assessed seven or ten times daily over a week. Trait attachment was assessed using the Experiences in Close Relationships–Revised. Results showed that state security predicted decreased state avoidance and anxiety. Evidence also emerged for state avoidance predicting decreased security. Trait attachment showed no expected moderation effects on the state-level dynamics. Our study underscores the predominance of security over insecurities, suggesting that the functioning of the everyday attachment system centers on fluctuations in the sense of security.

Across five studies (total N = 8,414), we examined whether religious individuals experienced more mixed emotions. Studies 1 and 2 examined associations between dispositional religiosity and mixed emotions, while Study 3 provided a pre-registered replication. Study 4 provided a pre-registered exploratory examination of three potential mediators of the relationship between dispositional religiosity and mixed emotions: trait dialecticism, cognitive reappraisal, and fear of God. Finally, Study 5 provided pre-registered prospective analyses testing associations between dispositional religiosity and mixed emotions 1 month later. Across all studies, positive and negative emotions were also examined, and latent variable structural equation modeling was performed, controlling for age, gender, education, and income. A multilevel multivariate meta-analysis was then performed to aggregate key findings. Results indicated that dispositional religiosity was associated with increased mixed emotions and positive emotions but not negative emotions. Additionally, fear of God was supported as a potential mediator between dispositional religiosity and mixed emotions.

People in post-conflict settings often carry traumatic memories that exacerbate dehumanization and obstruct reconciliation. We investigated these processes through three studies in postwar Kosovo. Study 1 (N = 200), correlational, found that disturbing war-related memories negatively predicted openness to contact and peace with former adversaries through increased meta-dehumanization and outgroup dehumanization. Study 2 (N = 201), experimental, manipulated meta-humanization and revealed an interaction between disturbing war-related memories and meta-humanization (vs. meta-dehumanization and control) on openness to contact and peace, mediated by outgroup dehumanization. Study 3 (N = 201) replicated Study 2 and extended the interaction to competitive victimhood, showing that meta-humanization reduced competitive victimhood only for individuals with low levels of disturbing war memories. Additionally, Study 3 demonstrated that outgroup dehumanization mediated the effect of meta-humanization on all outcomes, with stronger effects for those low (vs. high) in disturbing war memories. These findings held after controlling for prior intergroup contact.

Sharing messages about group-based disparities is an important strategy for raising awareness. However, not all messengers are evaluated alike. We predict that perceived motivations of messengers depend on who they are and how they speak up. Across one pilot and three pre-registered experiments (N = 2,240), we show that when messengers present group-based disparities in the workplace, their demographic identity and their message content jointly influence how they are perceived regarding self-interest and other-interest motives. We find a negative messenger–message discordance effect: White men are generally viewed as less other-interested and more self-interested than Black and female messengers when presenting statistics-only messages on workplace disparities. However, incorporating explicit personal advocacy against inequality mitigates less favorable interest perceptions for White men and boosts perceived other-interest for all messengers. The study further explores qualitative responses on motivation and provides insights into the nuanced dynamics of messenger perceptions considering demographic identities and message content.

Prior research investigating public perceptions of narcissistic individuals has relied on participant ratings of researcher-selected dimensions or character vignettes, limiting generalizability and ecological validity. Using reverse correlation—a bottom-up, participant-driven method—we examined how people visually represent narcissists, and the consequences of these representations on attributional perceptions (e.g., trust, leadership, attraction). As narcissism is commonly perceived in terms of selfishness or vanity, participants generated facial images where the selfish (Experiment 1) or vain (Experiment 2) dimensions of narcissism were made salient—resulting in selfish-narcissistic versus non-selfish faces and vain-narcissistic versus non-vain faces. Experiment 3 directly compared representations of selfish- and vain-narcissistic faces and their non-narcissistic counterparts. While narcissistic facial images were generally perceived unfavorably by naïve raters, the vain-narcissistic face was seen as more agentic (e.g., competent) and attractive than the selfish-narcissistic face. Narcissistic (vs. non-narcissistic) raters also viewed the vain-narcissistic face more favorably, an effect mediated by perceived similarity.

This study investigates the understudied aspect of the multi-faceted nature of religious identity and its implications for intergroup outcomes vital to (post-)conflict settings. Three studies were conducted in Northern Ireland to address this gap using a mixed-method approach. Study 1 involved 519 Catholic and Protestant participants who provided open-ended responses regarding religious identity construals as religious, cultural, or political. Qualitative content analysis yielded 17 items related to Catholic/Protestant identity construals. Study 2 included 276 participants who rated these 17 items, and factor analyses identified a subset of 14 items representing the three identity construals. Finally, Study 3 (N = 300) validated the newly-developed scale and examined how different combinations of religious, cultural, and political identities related to forgiveness, collective action, and allyship. The results indicate the reliable measurement of religious identity construals across the three dimensions and contribute to understanding religious identity and its implications for conflict and peace.

There is a pressing need to understand why people believe in conspiracies. Although past work has focused on needs and motivations, we propose an alternative driver of belief: overconfidence. Across eight studies with 4,181 U.S. adults, conspiracy believers consistently overestimated their performance on numeracy and perception tests (even after taking their actual performance into account). This relationship with overconfidence was robust in controlling for analytic thinking, the need for uniqueness, and narcissism, and it was strongest for the most fringe conspiracies. We also found that conspiracy believers—particularly overconfident ones—massively overestimated (>4×) how much others agree with them: Although conspiratorial claims were believed by a majority of participants only 12% of the time, believers thought themselves to be in the majority 93% of the time. This was evident even when asked to rate agreement among counter-partisans, indicating that conspiracists are genuinely unaware that their beliefs are on the fringe.

Do trait empathy measures predict how people experience empathy in daily life? Despite considerable research on empathy, we know surprisingly little about how trait measures relate to real-world empathic experiences. In this preregistered analysis of 7,343 experience sampling surveys from a near-representative sample of 246 U.S. adults, we map the connections between validated trait empathy measures and state experiences of empathy. Each component of state empathy—including emotion sharing, perspective taking, and compassion—was significantly predicted by theoretically relevant trait measures. However, trait empathy explained limited variance in daily experiences overall, ranging from just 3% for emotion sharing to 15% for perceived empathic efficacy. Adding emotional valence as a predictor improved model fit and variance explained for most state experiences, highlighting the crucial role of context. Our findings validate trait empathy measures while revealing their limitations in predicting real-world experiences.

Public perceptions of whistleblowers are polarized: While some praise them as heroes, others view them as traitors. We argue that such perceptions are rooted in motives attributed to whistleblowers and tested this idea in three studies. A first qualitative study (N = 201) revealed four main motives attributed in whistleblowing situations: prosocial, competitive, individualistic, and deontic. In two subsequent scenario studies (total N = 867), we manipulated how an actor responded to an organizational wrongdoing (type of whistleblowing: no, internal, external, or public whistleblowing) and measured motive attributions and judgments of the actor’s moral character. The type of whistleblowing impacted moral character judgments, mediated by motive attributions. Specifically, the type of whistleblowing impacted all four motive attributions and, in turn, prosocial, competitive, and deontic attributions were associated with moral character judgments.

Despite growing recognition of the need for cross-national or cross-cultural validation of measures in social psychological research, a tension persists between proponents of measurement invariance and practitioners frustrated with stringent standards and ambiguous recommendations. This article critiques common applications of measurement invariance standards and proposes an alternative method for establishing cross-group validity. We highlight how measurement invariance emerged from concerns about fairness in high-stakes individual selections and is based on meta-theoretical assumptions usually irrelevant for drawing cross-societal comparisons. Using the General System Justification Scale as an example, we demonstrate how reliance on a nomological network can ensure meaningful group differences without meeting invariance criteria and show how non-invariance is preferable to approximate (or partial) invariance. We recommend that psychologists interested in cross-group comparisons isolate construct-relevant factors from method bias. Doing so requires defining a priori the goal of scale use and what is “societal” or “cultural” about what is being measured.

Despite 1 in 10 Asian Americans living in poverty, their struggles are often overlooked due to the persistence of “model minority” stereotypes. This study investigates whether counter-stereotypical narratives—emphasizing either economic hardship or psychological challenges—can reduce stereotype-driven misperceptions and improve recognition of the inequalities faced by Asian Americans. Using a nationally representative U.S. sample (N = 2,983), these interventions moderated both trait-based beliefs (e.g., Asian Americans are inherently hardworking) and structural beliefs (e.g., Asian Americans experience less discrimination than other minority groups). Follow-up studies revealed that participants exposed to the interventions were less likely to overestimate the incomes of low-income Asian Americans, displayed lower bias in recognizing inequality in resource allocation, and were more likely to identify discrimination in hiring situations. These findings suggest that stereotype-challenging messages can foster more accurate and empathetic perceptions—without diminishing positive regard—by raising awareness of the structural disadvantages faced by Asian Americans.

Individuals with concealable stigmatized identities (CSIs) may employ avoidance strategies to hide their identities. While seemingly protective, identity avoidance may negatively impact perceived self-knowledge (i.e., self-concept clarity and self-alienation). Across six studies (N = 1,945) with U.S. and Chinese university samples, we found that those with CSIs consistently reported lower levels of perceived self-knowledge than those without (Studies 1a–1d). CSI avoidance was also uniquely associated with decreased levels of perceived self-knowledge, even when controlling for relevant factors. Experimental manipulations (Studies 2 and 3) of concealable identity salience yielded mixed evidence for direct effects on perceived self-knowledge, but consistent indirect effects through identity avoidance. The results emphasize the negative impact avoidance-based concealment may have on perceived self-knowledge among individuals with CSIs, urging future research on mitigating factors and cognitive mechanisms.

Life satisfaction and physical pain are key aspects of human well-being. Yet, evidence on the direction of their association and potential explanatory factors is relatively scarce. We address these questions across two studies. In Study 1, we explore the cross-lagged association between life satisfaction and physical pain using 22 waves from Australian longitudinal data (Household, Income and Labour Dynamics of Australia; N = 233,854), individual fixed effects regressions, and Random Intercept Cross-Lagged Panel Models. We found a bidirectional relationship between life satisfaction and pain, which is virtually identical across both methods. In Study 2, we use data from the 1970 British Cohort Study (N = 4,002) and Ordinary Least Squares regressions with a wide set of covariates. We found that people who reported greater life satisfaction at age 26 (vs. lower) reported lower physical pain at age 46. We document factors that partially explain this link, including psychological distress and past unemployment.