Journal of Veterinary Dentistry

Diagnosis of canine periodontal disease relies on clinical and radiographic evaluation including the simplified bisecting angle (SBA) technique. However, difficulty in visualizing the alveolar bone margin and misinterpreting its distance from the cemento-enamel junction (CEJ) diminishes its usefulness. The objective of the study was to compare a new radiographic view, the modified interproximal (MIP) technique, to the SBA technique for the detection of bony defects and furcation involvement in a canine experimental model of periodontal disease of the maxillary fourth premolar tooth (PM4). The authors hypothesized that the MIP technique would detect milder bony defects and furcation exposure compared to the SBA technique. Eleven large breed dog cadavers with mesaticephalic or dolichocephalic skull conformation and without periodontal disease were used. Dental radiography with SBA and MIP techniques was acquired prior to and after creating a horizontal pattern of bony defects, centered on PM4 in 12.5% increments, from 0% to 50% bone loss. The level of the bone margin and furcation exposure was evaluated. Inter- and intraobserver agreement was substantial. Observers systematically underestimated the distance between the CEJ and the bone margin with both radiographic techniques. MIP technique performed better overall than SBA technique (accuracy and sensitivity were significantly improved). These results show that MIP technique is more accurate than SBA in the evaluation of mild bony defects and furcation lesions associated with PM4. Adding a MIP view of PM4 to the canine full-mouth survey may improve detection of bone loss and furcation involvement.

The present study aimed to investigate the anatomical, ultrasonographic, radiographic and computed tomographic parameters of the normal temporomandibular joint (TMJ) and related structures in dogs. Ten clinically healthy adult mesocephalic dogs (8 live and 2 cadavers), aged 2 to 4 years, were included in this study. Gross anatomical dissection was performed in 2 cadaveric dogs to validate the ultrasonographic features of the TMJ. Radiography provided visualization of bony structures of the TMJ, but images were superimposed on surrounding structures. Computed tomography produced excellent and in-detail bony anatomy. Ultrasonography demonstrated superior soft tissue resolution, and visibility of the intra-articular soft structures of the TMJ and its neighboring soft tissues, such as the masseter muscle, parotid gland, and articular capsule. Gross anatomical dissection validated the ultrasound findings. This study concluded that ultrasonography is a practical, noninvasive diagnostic tool for the assessment of normal TMJ in dogs.

Rostral maxillary defects following curative intent surgery for maxillary neoplasms can be difficult to close. This paper describes a modified T-shaped closure following rostral maxillectomy that permits the primary mucosal closure of larger rostral maxillary defects that may not be amenable to standard closure techniques. The technique facilitates decreased incision site tension, results in a more cosmetic closure (decreased concave deformity of the muzzle), maintains normal vestibule size, preserves critical vasculature, and maintains the greatest amount of available tissue for repair of defects, should they occur. Retrospective evaluation of medical records from January 1, 2015, through January 31, 2023, at the Center for Veterinary Dentistry and Oral Surgery, Gaithersburg, MD, United States, identified 23 dogs having undergone bilateral incisivectomy and unilateral or bilateral rostral maxillectomy where this closure was utilized. Evaluation of available medical records and client interviews demonstrated successful outcomes; however, further studies are needed to validate the success rate of this technique.

The oral microbiome is an important aspect of overall oral health in dogs. To investigate the ability of a postbiotic, canine oral health postbiotic (COHP), to support oral health, a double-blind, placebo-controlled study was conducted with a dirty tooth model to assess its ability to reduce volatile sulfur compound (VSC) producing microbes that cause halitosis and modulate canine oral microbiome composition. Ten client-owned dogs were randomly split into 2 groups. The groups received either the COHP or a placebo as a powder topper on food for 7 days. Oral microbiome samples were collected on day 0 and day 7 along with the buccal gingival margin. Hydrogen sulfide (H₂S)-producing colonies were quantified by plating the oral microbiome samples and counting pigment-producing colonies. Additionally, oral microbiome samples were sequenced, and taxa abundance was quantified. A trend toward a reduction in H₂S-producing colonies was observed in the COHP group (P = .06), but not in the placebo group (P = .9). Canine oral health postbiotic reduced the abundance of 9 times as many taxa as the placebo, including taxa that form biofilms and produce VSCs. The placebo reduced the abundance of only one taxon, which is not associated with biofilms or VSCs. The findings provide evidence for COHP's ability to promote a positive shift in the canine oral microbiome, and, together with previous results, provides evidence that it may broadly help to maintain canine oral health.

Canine oral lymphoma is an uncommon neoplasm that mimics inflammatory or immune-mediated oral diseases as well as other round-cell tumors, complicating diagnosis and potentially delaying treatment. The objective of this study was to describe the clinical presentation, behavior, and outcomes of canines diagnosed with oral lymphoma, including epitheliotropic and nonepitheliotropic forms of the disease. A retrospective review of 75 cases diagnosed between 2019 and 2022 was performed, evaluating histologic categorization, lesion characteristics (solitary vs multifocal, anatomic location, and descriptors), and survival data when obtainable. There were 73 cases (97.3%) of epitheliotropic T-cell lymphoma (ETCL), 1 case (1.3%) of lingual T-zone lymphoma, and 1 case (1.3%) of peripheral T cell lymphoma-not otherwise specified. The most common anatomic locations for ETCL were the mucocutaneous junction (65.3%) and buccal or labial mucosa (62.7%). Lesions affecting the mucocutaneous junction were commonly located on the mandibular labial frenulum (61.2%), and 46.7% of mandibular frenulum lesions were the only lesions present in the oral cavity. Lesions associated with ETCL were likely to be multifocal (57.3%) and ulcerated (62.8%). Patient survival was not significantly associated with lesion number (solitary vs multifocal) among epitheliotropic cases. These findings indicate that canine oral lymphoma is predominantly epitheliotropic and frequently multifocal, underscoring the importance of biopsy and histopathologic evaluation of oral tissues exhibiting subtle mucosal changes such as erythema or depigmentation. Adjunctive diagnostics, including immunohistochemistry, flow cytometry, and polymerase chain reaction for antigen receptor rearrangements, may facilitate earlier detection. Prospective studies are warranted to clarify disease progression, treatment response, and prognosis.

This study evaluated the accuracy, consistency, and clinical appropriateness of responses generated by large language models (LLMs) to frequently asked questions (FAQs) in veterinary dentistry client communication. Six common FAQs were identified based on guidance from the American Veterinary Dental College (AVDC) and submitted under standardized conditions to multiple LLMs, including ChatGPT-5, Gemini 2.5 Flash, Claude Sonnet 4.5, Perplexity, Qwen3-Max, and DeepSeek. Artificial intelligence (AI) generated responses were compared with expert-reviewed reference answers prepared by 2 veterinarians with academic and clinical experience in small animal dentistry. Responses were independently evaluated by 2 expert and 2 novice assessors across 4 domains: main idea coverage, information quality, consistency with expert content, and presence of inconsistencies using a 3-point Likert scale (Yes, Neutral, No). Inter-rater agreement between expert evaluators was assessed using Cohen's kappa, and between-model comparisons were performed using McNemar's exact test after dichotomization of ratings. Inter-rater agreement was substantial (κ = 0.68). ChatGPT-5 showed the highest alignment with expert-reviewed reference content, followed by Claude Sonnet 4.5. Differences between expert and novice evaluations were most evident for questions related to anesthesia safety and anesthesia-free dental procedures. Clinically relevant inaccuracies were identified across several models, particularly regarding the requirement for general anesthesia with a protected airway. No statistically significant differences were detected between primary model comparisons (P = 1.00). These findings indicate that LLMs may support client education in veterinary dentistry but require expert oversight to ensure clinical accuracy and patient safety.

The study was performed to compare surgical time and potential complications for closed versus open extraction technique of deciduous canine teeth in dogs and cats. The authors hypothesize that closed extractions can be accomplished with less time and surgical trauma without increasing the incidence of postoperative complications than open extractions of deciduous canine teeth. A search of electronic medical records identified 305 deciduous canine tooth extractions from June 1, 2019, to December 31, 2022, at a multi-location veterinary dental referral practice. Comparison groups included 237 closed and 68 open extractions. Records verified the extracted tooth, reason for extraction, type (closed or open), recheck, and complication history. Time was recorded for 61 closed and seven open procedures. Data were analyzed for significant correlations. Twenty teeth (6.6%) were extracted due to fracture exposing the pulp, 178 (58.4%) for persistent deciduous teeth, 71 (23.3%) for interceptive orthodontics to treat malocclusion, and 36 (11.8%) for retained tooth roots. Mean extraction times were 74.66 s (95% CI: 71.06–78.06) for closed and 349.9 s (95% CI: 148.8–551) for open. Rechecks were performed on 43/116 (37.07%) closed and 19/47 (40.43%) open extraction patients. No extraction site dehiscence was noted. Enamel hypoplasia was noted in 3/30 (10%) closed extractions. Closed procedures were completed in less than half the time compared to open extractions. Closed extraction eliminates the possibility of flap dehiscence and iatrogenic enamel hypoplasia incidence was lower than recently reported for open extraction of deciduous canine teeth. Results demonstrated that closed extractions of deciduous canine teeth can be efficiently and effectively performed, with multiple benefits to patients, pet owners, and practitioners compared with results of open extraction procedures.

A variety of factors which might potentially affect the severity score of rabbits’ teeth were investigated. These included the age, breed and gender of the animal as well as its cephalic index and dietary factors such as type of bowl feed and availability of hay or fresh grass. Age and cephalic index values were found to be significantly associated with the severity of dental disease, but the rabbit's gender and breed did not significantly affect this. The type of bowl feed also had an effect. However, the frequency of access to hay, fresh grass or grazing did not significantly affect this score suggesting that although some form of grass is important in the diet, the form of grass supplied to animals is not likely to affect severity scores.

This retrospective study aimed to investigate the incidence and potential consequences of retained deciduous tooth root remnants in canine patients who were presented at a referral clinic between 2013 and 2023. Among the 5432 medical records reviewed, 237 retained root remnants of deciduous teeth were identified radiographically in 143 patients. The identified root remnants were most commonly associated with the left (604) (39.2%) and right (504) (33.7%) deciduous maxillary canine teeth. The areas surrounding the retained root remnants were evaluated for radiographic changes. Direct problems associated with deciduous root remnants were observed in 117 dogs (81.8%). The most common finding was periapical radiolucency in 63 dogs (44.1%), and root resorption and ankylosis in 54 dogs (37.8%). Additional abnormalities included dental malocclusion, which affected the corresponding permanent dentition. Yorkshire Terriers were overrepresented, comprising 41.2% of the affected patients. This study emphasizes that retained deciduous root remnants do not undergo resorption and may develop clinical complications. Additionally, the importance of routine full-mouth radiography in dogs has been highlighted for the identification of such abnormalities.

A 6-year-old neutered male feline patient was presented with left sided facial swelling. A diagnosis of benign hypertrophy of the masseter and pterygoid muscles was made based on clinical, imaging, and histopathologic findings. Benign hypertrophy of masticatory muscles is an uncommon condition described in the human literature. Masseter muscle hypertrophy has been diagnosed rarely in humans with few references reporting concurrent hypertrophy of the medial and lateral pterygoid muscles. The primary inciting cause of this condition is unknown. Treatment in humans is primarily sought for cosmetic reasons with multiple treatment modalities being described including medical and surgical management. This article describes the first reported case of benign masseter and pterygoid muscle hypertrophy in the veterinary literature.

Periodontal disease results from bacterial biofilm formation on teeth and surrounding tissues, being highly prevalent in adult dogs. Given bacterial resistance, natural and innovative alternatives are sought for treatment of periodontal disease. In this context, the flavonoid quercetin shows promise due to its antimicrobial and soft tissue regenerative properties. This study aimed to evaluate the susceptibility of oral bacteria strains to quercetin, develop a sodium carboxymethyl cellulose-based hydrogel and polymeric film containing the flavonoid, and perform physicochemical characterization, residence time analysis, and in vitro release of the formulations. Microbiological assays demonstrated quercetin's effectiveness against sensitive and resistant strains. The pH of the formulations was maintained between 6.5 and 7.5, ensuring biocompatibility during application. The hydrogel and film content were 98.2% and 97%, respectively, with residence times exceeding 5 h. The hydrogel exhibited zero-order kinetics, while the polymeric film showed pseudo-first-order kinetics. Morphological analyses revealed pores in the films with quercetin, and structural analyses showed no alteration in quercetin's structure. The results indicate that the developed formulations have innovative prophylactic potential for canine periodontal disease.

A neuroma is a tangled, circumscribed, non-neoplastic mass of neuronal tissue formed after axonal injury and consists of a mixture of fibroblasts, Schwann cells and axons. Traumatic neuroma is the most commonly recognized neuroma lesion in humans and can occur at any site in the body where a nerve is traumatized. A 15-year-old female Miniature Pinscher was presented with periodontal disease. A lump on the right side of the face was found, corresponding to a solitary cylindrical mass on the mucosal surface of the lower lip. Dental radiographs showed no lysis of the mandibular bone. After an inconclusive cytological examination, the mass was surgically removed, fixed in 10% formalin, embedded in paraffin, and routinely stained for light microscopy. Macroscopically, a whitish, firm, filiform mass measuring 2.5 × 0.5 × 0.3 cm was found. Microscopically, the mass was poorly defined and consisted of spindle-shaped cells forming bands, bundles, and sometimes coiled structures, resembling nerves, surrounded by fibrosis. The cells were monomorphic, but an area of increased cellularity and nuclear atypia was observed. Mitotic figures, Verocay bodies, or Antoni A and B patterns were not found. The mass was surrounded by oral epithelium, mucinous glands, and skeletal muscle. There is much confusion in veterinary medicine regarding the nomenclature of peripheral nerve sheath tumors, that is, schwannomas, neurofibromas, perineuromas, traumatic neuroma, and malignant tumors of the peripheral nerve sheath. This lesion had histological features consistent with a neuroma, an unusual entity in the canine oral cavity.

In active force orthodontics in dogs, the ratio of root surface area (RSA) between the anchorage and target dentition is the primary factor when determining the expected relative movement patterns. Reinforced anchorage involves bonding of adjacent structures together (ie, 2 or more teeth) in the anchorage unit to increase the total attachment or RSAs. This methodology is commonly implemented in the movement of the maxillary canine tooth using active force orthodontics by bonding the maxillary fourth premolar and first molar teeth together. Cone beam computed tomography scans of mesaticephalic dogs were evaluated using third-party viewing software to determine the RSAs of the maxillary canine, fourth premolar, and first molar teeth. The RSA ratios were then calculated for the following comparisons: canine to fourth premolar (C:PM4), canine to first molar (C:M1), and canine to combined fourth premolar and first molar (C:PM4 + M1). Forty-eight dogs and 86 dental arcades met the inclusion parameters. 20.93% of dental arcades had a C:PM4 RSA ratio <1, none of the dental arcades had a C:M1 RSA ratio <1, and all but one arcade (98.81%) had a C:PM4 + M1 RSA ratio <1. Increased weight was significantly correlated with an increase in all RSA ratios. Based on these findings, the authors recommend continuing the practice of bonding the maxillary fourth premolar and first molar teeth together when applying active force orthodontics for the maxillary canine tooth in mesaticephalic patients.

Parosteal osteosarcoma (OSA) is a subtype of surface OSA that is considered slow growing with a less aggressive biological behavior compared to central OSA and, therefore, carries a better prognosis with surgical excision. Parosteal OSA has a predilection for the skull in dogs with documented more frequent occurrences on the zygoma, maxilla, or coronoid process of the mandible, all of which present unique challenges to the oral surgeon. Ten cases of parosteal OSA of the canine maxillofacial bones are summarized and discussed in this report. The most common bone of origin was the caudal maxilla and/or zygoma in 50% of tumors. Exophthalmos was a prominent clinical sign noted in 40% of dogs. Median survival time was 14 months, with a one-year survival rate of 60%. Metastasis to the lungs was suspected in three cases. The histopathological diagnosis of parosteal OSA is crucially dependent on diagnostic imaging. When a primary bone tumor of the maxillofacial bones is suspected, it is essential for the oral surgeon and pathologist to collaborate to provide informed guidance on surgical planning, anticipated long-term outcomes, and clinical monitoring for these patients. The goals of this retrospective study are to identify key clinical and radiographic features, improve recognition for accurate diagnosis, and establish treatment recommendations for canine maxillofacial parosteal OSA.

Halitosis, or oral malodor, is caused by unwanted oral microbes that metabolize proteins and produce volatile sulfur compounds (VSCs). These malodorous VSCs may negatively impact oral health as they are pro-inflammatory, and halitosis is generally considered an important marker of oral health status. A previous clinical study with 24 dogs showed that daily administration of 250 mg of a novel canine oral health postbiotic (COHP) significantly decreased VSCs by 26% compared to placebo on Day 14, with twice as many dogs showing perceptibly improved breath in the COHP group on Day 7. The present double-blinded, placebo-controlled validation study evaluated COHP's ability to reduce canine oral malodor at a reduced dose of 150 mg to confirm that the previously reported efficacy of COHP is reproducible and maintained at a lower dose. Twenty-four dogs were stratified by starting VSC levels and received either COHP or placebo as a powder topper over standard chow for 14 days. VSC levels were measured via a halimeter, and perceived malodor was assessed using a 10-point scale on Days 0, 7, and 14. VSC levels increased in the placebo group by 24% on Day 7 (P = .006) and 38% on Day 14 (P = .002), while COHP prevented VSC increases on both days, resulting in a −26% change compared to placebo on Day 14 (P = .04). VSC levels correlated with perceived malodor, and COHP trended toward a 1-point reduction in perceived malodor compared to placebo (P = .06). These findings agree with the previous study, suggesting COHP effectively reduces canine halitosis across 2 doses.

A 3-year-old neutered male domestic shorthair cat was presented with acute pain during feeding and with hypersalivation, without any history of trauma. Oral examination revealed a lateral deviation of the left mandible and a soft, painful swelling at the site of the missing left mandibular canine tooth (304). Intraoral radiographs and computed tomography (CT) demonstrated extensive bone lysis of the left mandible and a cystic lesion extending from the mandibular symphysis to the level of the mandibular fourth premolar tooth (308), within which the embedded canine tooth was located. Regional lymph nodes appeared normal on clinical and CT examination, and fine-needle aspiration of the left mandibular node showed reactive changes. A left-sided segmental mandibulectomy, from the mandibular symphysis to the mandibular first molar tooth (309), was performed to remove the cyst and the affected bone. Histopathological evaluation identified features consistent with an odontogenic keratocyst and concurrently confirmed the presence of a rhabdomyosarcoma. Three months after surgery, the cat was presented with a rapidly enlarging mass firmly attached to the soft tissues of the mandibulectomy site and it was euthanized a few days later. This case represents the first reported coexistence of an odontogenic keratocyst with a malignant neoplasm, specifically rhabdomyosarcoma, in a cat. The findings highlight the importance of thorough investigation of cystic oral lesions, as they may be associated with severe bone destruction and concurrent malignancy, even in young animals.