Language Teaching Research

Although a number of previous studies have shown that TV viewing can lead to incidental vocabulary learning, most of them focused on single words. Little research has examined the effect of captioned TV viewing on incidental collocation learning compared with other modes of input. In addition, research on the factors that affect incidental collocation from different input modes is still relatively scarce and has produced inconclusive findings. To fill those research gaps, the present study investigates the effects of reading-while-listening and captioned TV viewing on incidental collocation learning and predictors of learning gains. Eighty Vietnamese English as a foreign language (EFL) learners were divided into an experimental group and a control group. The experimental group encountered 24 target collocations in two stories in two modes of input (reading-while-listening and viewing videos with second language captions) in a counterbalanced fashion over four weeks. Learning was assessed at the level of form recall. The findings indicated that both modes of input resulted in equally significant gains of collocational knowledge. In addition, learners’ prior vocabulary knowledge and collocational congruency were significant predictors of learning gains. Learners with larger vocabulary knowledge picked up significantly more collocations in reading-while-listening but fewer collocations in captioned TV viewing than learners with smaller vocabulary knowledge.

Vocabulary learning is basic for mastering a foreign language. Many students learn foreign language (FL) vocabulary via instructional videos outside of traditional classrooms, as there is no limit to time or space. Cues (e.g. coloring, highlighting, arrows, and text) are design features in instructional videos that not only guide learners’ attention, but also facilitate the organization and integration of information. However, little is known about how visual cues and text cues influence FL vocabulary learning from instructional videos. In Experiment 1, we tested the effects of synonym text cues presented before the instructional video and visual cues during the video. Effects were measured in terms of participants’ judgments of learning and objective measures of learning performance (indicated by accuracy on immediate and delayed tests). Learners showed highest accuracy in the text cues condition, followed by the visual cues condition, and finally the no cues condition. In Experiment 2, we tested the neural oscillatory correlates of cues in FL vocabulary instructional videos based on electroencephalogram (EEG) evidence of frontal theta and frontal-parietal alpha power. Compared to visual cues during the video, text cues before the video elicited higher frontal theta power, suggesting higher working memory processing, at the early stage of learning from instructional videos. The results of this study have implications for designing effective FL vocabulary instructional videos with cues.

High-frequency words are single-words at the first three 1,000-word frequency levels. No studies have explored the impact of current second language (L2) exposure, length of study, and L2 proficiency on the receptive knowledge of high-frequency words of learners of English as a foreign language (EFL) from non-cognate first language (L1) background. To address this gap, this study used the Updated Vocabulary Levels Test and the Receptive Collocation Test to measure the receptive knowledge of form–meaning connection and collocations of high-frequency words of 201 Chinese EFL postgraduate students. It also surveyed these students’ amount of current L2 exposure, length of study, and L2 proficiency. The results showed that, on average, the participants had 20.22 hours of exposure to various types of L2 input per week in and out of class. A series of single linear mixed-effects model analyses revealed that their current L2 exposure and length of study did not seem to have an impact on their knowledge of form–meaning connection of high-frequency words nor their collocational knowledge of these words overall. Yet, L2 proficiency significantly affected their knowledge of form–meaning connection and collocations of the 1st 1,000 words. Knowledge of form–meaning connection also contributed to the collocational knowledge. Pedagogical implications for vocabulary researchers and practitioners were provided.

Although extensive research exists on the personal, social, and academic outcomes of community-engaged programs (CEPs), limited research exists on vocabulary learning and students’ perceptions of their own vocabulary learning through participation in a CEP. Likewise, limited research exists on vocabulary learning in mixed-proficiency groups of Spanish second language (L2) learners. This study contributes to the current literature by exploring the vocabulary learning of 57 mixed-proficiency L2-Spanish college students who participated in a health-focused after-school program with Spanish–English bilingual children in a Midwestern city in the US. The higher proficiency students were enrolled in a language-focused class, whereas the lower-level students were enrolled in a Spanish for health professional’s class. Student reflective narratives revealed positive perceptions of vocabulary learning during the CEP, as vocabulary learning was seen to be fundamental to connecting with children in the Latino community. Productive vocabulary tests revealed significantly higher gains on vocabulary items that had been explicitly taught in class, but gains varied according to learners’ proficiency levels. Lower-level students showed both higher gains and a higher perception of vocabulary gains than more advanced students. Students’ reflective narratives suggest that the focus on health content in the lower-level class may have contributed both to vocabulary gains and to students’ awareness of learning. Recommendations for effective vocabulary instruction for mixed-proficiency students in a CEP are presented.

The present study seeks to explore the effects of participating in a content and language integrated learning (CLIL) programme in terms of second language (L2) content-specific vocabulary learning in a primary education school. CLIL instruction has been found to benefit the development of English L2 vocabulary, more receptive than productive. Nonetheless, little is known on content-specific vocabulary learning in CLIL and how it is supported through classroom input with young learners. We explore the impact of a 4-week CLIL programme implemented in a Catalan primary education school with a group of 16 Catalan/Spanish first language (L1) children, aged 10–11 years. Vocabulary learning was measured by means of ad hoc tests, designed on the basis of the input from the CLIL materials and targeting vocabulary depth and breadth. The results indicate that CLIL instruction positively impacted children’s depth and breadth of content-specific vocabulary knowledge. More specifically, the children experienced a significant improvement both in their receptive and productive knowledge of word meaning and form with regard to content-specific lexis. Moreover, with regard to children’s productive vocabulary knowledge as elicited through a written content task, statistical improvement was found in terms of lexical diversity and sophistication, but not lexical density. We argue for the need to use input profiled assessment instruments to appraise L2 vocabulary gains in CLIL.

The current study investigated the interaction between task-induced involvement load and the languages used in vocabulary glosses on incidental second language (L2) word learning in low proficiency learners of English as a foreign language (EFL). Using computer-based tasks, the study also probed whether a task with a higher level of involvement load promoted a greater learner engagement with unfamiliar words, as measured by their hypertext gloss lookup frequencies. A total of 160 Thai EFL learners were equally divided into five task conditions based on the relative level of involvement load (low, high) and type of target word gloss (no glosses, L1 glosses, L2 glosses). The findings suggest that a task with a higher level of involvement load and first language (L1) glosses is most conducive to L2 word learning and that gloss language can mediate the effect of involvement load. Moreover, a task with a higher level of involvement load prompted learners to be more engaged with unfamiliar L2 words, irrespective of gloss language. The study provides partial support for the Involvement Load Hypothesis and reveals the differential effects of L1 and L2 glosses on L2 learning, which were not taken into account in the hypothesis. Pedagogical implications are also discussed.

This study presents a teaching intervention to maximize the learning of a set of target words (TW) in learners of English as a foreign language (EFL) in a secondary school by means of intentional vocabulary learning activities and additional captioned television (TV) viewing. In the course of one academic year, two groups of grade 10 EFL learners (N = 64) were introduced to new TWs each week through language-focused exercises. The experimental group (n = 33) was additionally exposed to a captioned TV series where these TWs appeared. To measure lexical growth, all students took pre- and post-tests evaluating both TW form and meaning recall. Vocabulary retention was measured with an eight-month delayed post-test. Results revealed that vocabulary was mainly learned intentionally, but that additional viewing of the captioned TV series significantly contributed to greater lexical gains at different testing times. Similar vocabulary retention rates were observed for both groups. Conclusions and implications for teaching are drawn on the role of extensive video viewing for vocabulary learning in instructional settings.

This study explored a possible impact of extensive reading (ER) on vocabulary learning. Participants were 62 English majors who entered a private university in Japan in April 2019 and experienced ER for 13 months. They took the Productive Vocabulary Levels Test at the 2,000-word level 3 times: in April, December and May 2020. The outcomes of paired t-tests with Bonferroni correction revealed that participants achieved higher scores on the 2nd test, but their performance deteriorated on the final test. The model yielded by multiple regression analysis was comprised of the number of series participants read books from and the average percentage grade of MReader quizzes they passed, whose contribution to the post test scores was 14.1%. Follow-up tests were run between 12 students who retained or improved their scores on the delayed test and those who did not. It was found that these 12 participants read more constantly during the spring vacation. They also read more books from one graded reader series and books with fewer than 2,000 words, but read fewer 4,000-to-4,999-word-long books from April to December.

Given the fundamental contribution of formulaic sequences to the fluent, natural second/foreign language (L2) use and processing, finding effective ways of improving learners’ formulaic language has increasingly engaged the attention of L2 practitioners. Focusing on lexical bundles (LBs), as the most frequent formulaic-language strings, the current quasi-experimental study examined statistical learning of recurring 3-to-6-word LBs among Iranian learners of English as a foreign language (EFL) receiving different types of distributional, narrative sensory stimuli. To this end, three intact classes received a recurring-theme narrative content in three different input modalities including only-auditory, audiovisual, and captioned audiovisual. To examine whether exposure to statistical, varied-modality input (or sensory stimuli) constituted profound knowledge of L2 lexical bundles, the three experimental groups’ performances on immediate and delayed posttests were compared with those of a control group which received no purposefully distributional, modality-based stimuli. ANOVA results revealed that all the frequency-based modality inputs led to more sizeable LB gains. Further, multiple (captioned) audiovisual sensory stimuli more effectively fostered retention and recalling of the target LBs over time than only-auditory input. The retention differences between the bimodal and multimodal inputs were insignificant. Overall, the findings supported combined statistical, formulaic advantages for processing, retention, and recalling of L2 LBs through distributional, multimodal stimuli.

Learning to read Chinese has been the main focus of Chinese heritage language education. The frequency of exposure to orthography–phonology and orthography–semantics correspondences and radical awareness play a significant role in character learning. However, limited exposure to characters in Chinese textbooks and the lack of explicit instruction on phonetic radicals have been proposed as limitations of conventional instruction methods used with Chinese heritage language learners. The current study assessed the efficacy of providing frequent character exposure in group reading activities for Chinese heritage children in their early learning to read Mandarin Chinese through a teaching method called Progressive Character Reading. The effectiveness of the teaching method on Chinese character acquisition and Chinese reading comprehension was examined through a quasi-experimental framework that compared a group of children undergoing the new teaching method (experimental group, n = 20) with a group of learners experiencing the traditional textbook-based instruction (control group, n = 20). Significant differences in gains between these two groups were found in measures of Chinese character reading, character–picture matching and Chinese sentence comprehension. These results suggest that group reading activities with frequent character exposure can increase learning for Chinese heritage language learners over that associated with conventional textbook-based instruction.

In this study, we investigated two core understandings related to the nature of second language (L2) student engagement from a self-determination theory framework: (1) that there is a dual process of development that follows from the initial conditions of the L2 classroom environment (specifically teacher motivational practice: autonomy-supportive vs. controlling), which leads to two distinct motivational experiences (need satisfaction vs. need frustration), which in turn results in qualitatively different types of student classroom functioning (engagement vs. disengagement); and (2) that there are reciprocal effects between the L2 classroom environment and student classroom functioning. We collected data from 1,742 students enrolled in general-purpose postsecondary English courses in mainland China at three waves in a 17-week semester, and tested a longitudinal dual-process, reciprocal-effects model. Our analyses showed that student perceptions of teacher motivational practice at the beginning of the semester predicted psychological need satisfaction at later time points. Psychological need satisfaction in turn predicted later classroom engagement. Student engagement also had feedback effects and predicted subsequent perceptions of teacher motivational practice. We discuss the implications of these results for L2 learning and teaching and consider ways that future research might build on our design and extend these findings.

This study investigated foreign-accentedness, comprehensibility, and intelligibility in second language (L2) Arabic speech. More specifically, it was designed to 1) measure how foreign-accented, comprehensible, and intelligible L2 Arabic speech was, 2) explain the relationships among those three global aspects, and 3) determine the extent to which foreign-accentedness and comprehensibility – individually or combined – explain or predict intelligibility. Thirty adult L2 Arabic speakers were audio-recorded while having an unofficial oral proficiency interview (OPI). A subset of three speech samples were extracted from the entire OPI for each speaker. Next, 10 adult native speakers of Arabic listened to and transcribed all speech samples in Arabic as a measure of intelligibility; in addition, they rated the samples for foreign-accentedness and comprehensibility on a 9-point scale. Results showed that L2 Arabic speech was rated more positively for comprehensibility than for foreign-accentedness, on average; in addition, most of it was less than highly intelligible. Also, results showed statistically significant relationships among the three global aspects under investigation, although they varied in strength: foreign-accentedness and comprehensibility showed the strongest relationship, followed with comprehensibility and intelligibility; foreign-accentedness and intelligibility was found to have the weakest relationship. Furthermore, foreign-accentedness and comprehensibility demonstrated a statistically significant explanatory or predictive power in intelligibility. However, both the unique contribution and added power of foreign-accentedness were not statistically significant, deeming a model with only comprehensibility being the best fit for the obtained assessment data of L2 Arabic speech. Consistent with existing evidence, the results support the partial independence of foreign-accentedness, comprehensibility, and intelligibility as global aspects of L2 speech while also indicating L2-specific patterns. After discussing the results and implications, directions for future research are provided.

The aim of this study was to test a model of second language (L2) boredom based on coping self-efficacy (CSE), foreign language enjoyment (FLE), and mindfulness among English as a foreign language (EFL) learners. In so doing, 456 EFL learners from Iran took part in this study by completing an online survey which included scales tapping into the four latent constructs under investigation. Two-step structural equation modelling was utilized to analyse the data and examine the associations among the constructs. Results revealed that CSE and mindfulness positively affected FLE. Also, FLE was a direct negative predictor of L2 boredom. Concerning the mediation hypotheses, FLE was found to fully mediate the effect of mindfulness on boredom. However, FLE was a partial mediator between CSE and boredom. These findings provide a basis for important implications for L2 research and practice.

Along with the evolution of positive psychology, research in noncognitive factors (e.g. enjoyment and boredom) has gradually flourished in second language (L2) education in recent years. However, previous studies have not examined how enjoyment, boredom, and motivational intensity concurrently predict the self-perceived L2 language proficiency (SPL2P) of younger L2 learners in the Chinese language learning context. To fill the gap, this study investigated 251 (N = 251) L2 Chinese students from 13 elementary and secondary schools in New Zealand, a population that has scarcely been featured. Embracing the PROCESS macro software, the results of the moderated mediation model indicated that L2 motivational intensity significantly predicted SPL2P, and L2 enjoyment positively mediated the association between L2 motivational intensity and SPL2P. Yet, L2 boredom negatively moderated the relationship between L2 motivational intensity and L2 enjoyment, and the strength of the mediated effect decreased along with the increasing level of L2 boredom. Theoretically, this study extended and validated the existing emotion measurements and theories from English language learning to L2 Chinese learning. Pedagogical implications are provided for L2 Chinese educators.

Second language (L2) motivation is the driving force behind L2 learning. It is of great pedagogical significance to explore how motivation factors, directly and indirectly, impact L2 oral proficiency. Based on data for all L2 learners as a composite group, Lin proposed and verified a conceptual model revealing the structural relations among L2 motivation factors (i.e. L2 interest, and perceived importance of speaking), behavioral variable (i.e. out-of-class L2 contact), and L2 oral proficiency. However, since gender differences and other learner subgroup differences in L2 motivation have been found by previous research, it is imperative to test whether this model is applicable across various learner subgroups. Based upon a dataset of 631 college students taking Chinese, French, Russian, and Spanish language classes in the United States, this study used multiple-group structural equation modeling (MG-SEM) to test the applicability of the model for L2 learners of diverse backgrounds. Key findings suggest adequacy of the model across the following subgroups: females vs. males; learners with vs. without at least two years of high school target language learning experience; and learners of commonly taught languages (i.e. Spanish and French) vs. less commonly taught languages (i.e. Chinese and Russian). However, pronounced differences in the applicability of the model are evident in comparisons of heritage and non-heritage language learners. There are significant differences in the relationships between L2 interest, perceived importance of speaking, and L2 oral proficiency, which are stronger for non-heritage learners. More research efforts are needed to fully understand the uniqueness of heritage learners’ motivation constructs and motivation process.

Corrective feedback on second language (L2) writing has remained one of the most heavily studied areas in applied linguistics, yet clear guidance for practitioners about how to provide it most effectively remains limited. Previous studies have meta-analysed written corrective feedback (WCF) research revealing conflicting findings in how WCF affects development in L2 writers’ accuracy over time. This study provides a needed update in light of a recent increase in (quasi)experimental WCF studies. It features several methodological advances by introducing a Bayesian approach to conducting a meta-analysis, which provides a more valid picture of the generalizable effects. The analysis allows distinction – for the first time at a meta-analytic level – between short-, medium-, and long-term effects of WCF. Results aggregate data from an initial 52 primary studies that utilized control groups revealing robust evidence of the durability of moderate effectiveness of WCF over time and deeper insight into the relative effectiveness of various types of WCF (e.g. direct, indirect, metalinguistic – all yielding similar effect sizes) across research contexts, writing task types, target error types, and instructional characteristics. We conclude with recommendations to help continue methodological advances in this domain.

This study investigated the effectiveness of cognitive linguistics-based instruction (CLI), as compared to that of traditional instruction (TI), in classrooms where English present and past tenses were taught to Chinese learners of English as a foreign language (EFL). Seventy-nine non-English major freshmen at CEFR B1 level from a Taiwan university were divided into two groups: the CLI group (N = 41) and the TI group (N = 38). In CLI, the cognitive notion of immediacy/non-immediacy for the present/past tenses and how prototypical and peripheral senses of the English tenses are tackled in cognitive linguistics were introduced, and then interpretation tasks were given for familiarizing learners with the previously learned information. In TI, language facts were explained through grammatical taxonomies, such as generics encoded with simple present, and past events encoded with simple past, followed by interpretation tasks. To measure learning outcomes, a pretest, a posttest, and a delayed posttest were conducted one week before, one week after, and five weeks after the teaching intervention. A questionnaire was also given to explore learners’ learning awareness about English tense teaching. Results revealed that CLI could be a more efficient teaching method for tense selection than TI in both short- and long-term learning outcomes. In addition, learners receiving CLI, provided with tools for prospective autonomous learning, may make consistent progress, construct an ability to observe pragmatic contexts, and build better cross-linguistic awareness. These findings suggest positive implications for EFL teachers and researchers in integrating cognitive linguistics with grammar teaching.

Recent research indicated the effectiveness of immediate and delayed corrective feedback (CF) on second language (L2) learning. What is little known is the moderating effects of learner individual factors such as foreign language anxiety (FLA) on the efficacy of immediate and delayed CF. The primary aim of the present study is thus to investigate if learners’ FLA can moderate the effectiveness of immediate and delayed feedback. To this end, 82 learners of English as a foreign language (EFL) were randomly assigned to two treatment conditions as well as a control group. During three treatment sessions, the participants performed storytelling tasks in groups of four and received either immediate or delayed metalinguistic feedback for the errors they made. Regarding the immediate feedback condition, each participant received metalinguistic feedback immediately following an error while doing the storytelling task. For the delayed feedback condition, metalinguistic feedback was offered for each error at the end of each storytelling task. Two testing instruments, a writing task and an error correction test were used as pretest, posttest and delayed posttest to measure learners’ development as a result of the treatment sessions. Without considering learners’ FLA, the findings revealed that immediate and delayed CF are equally effective to promote L2 development. However, when taking into consideration learners’ FLA through regression analysis, the results revealed that immediate CF was more beneficial for learners with low FLA compared to high anxiety learners, but no significant associations were found between FLA and delayed CF efficacy.

This article lies within the field of applied cognitive linguistics (ACL) and presents empirical work that addresses overlooked effects of assessment typology in second language (L2) learning. It examines whether pairing a cognitive instructional approach with matching assessment design results in greater learning outcomes over the more pervasive notional-functional approaches. The last two decades have witnessed a proliferation of empirical research measuring the effectiveness of ACL-based teaching approaches, yet studies have only been partly fruitful in eliciting data that truly favors ACL. We argue that this is largely due to assessment design, which typically measures performance via correct vs. incorrect tasks. To overcome this caveat, two studies addressing the complex Spanish psych-verb construction (e.g. gustar ‘to like’) were conducted following a pretest/posttest/delayed-posttest design for three empirical conditions (control, cognitive, and traditional): a pilot study (n = 59) and a larger replication (n = 160). Data collection entailed ACL-based assessment for interpretation and production tasks. Results showed that after instruction, the cognitive group significantly outperformed the traditional counterpart in both tasks. These findings lend support to the effectiveness of pairing cognitive instruction and cognitive assessment for difficult grammatical constructions.

The current study investigated the extent to which second language (L2) learners of English benefitted from various combinations of form-focused instruction (FFI) techniques on the acquisition of English articles. Forty-six participants were randomly assigned to four conditions: input enhancement only (n = 12); input enhancement and metalinguistic explanations (n = 11); input enhancement, metalinguistic explanations, and practice (n = 11); and a control condition (n = 12). They each received six hours of online instruction on English articles according to their condition. The participants’ knowledge of articles was measured by four tasks (i.e. grammaticality judgment task, metalinguistic knowledge task, elicited imitation task, and picture-description task) in a pretest, an immediate posttest, and a delayed posttest. Results showed that the group receiving input enhancement and metalinguistic explanations exhibited clear and durable gains in the metalinguistic knowledge task. Furthermore, a subset of participants who benefitted the most from the instructional treatment revealed two common factors: a first language (L1) without an article system and a high rate of engagement during the online instruction. The findings suggest that metalinguistic explanations clearly contribute to explicit knowledge of articles and that learners’ L1 backgrounds may affect the extent to which FFI on English articles benefits them. The present study contributes meaningfully to the current understanding of the effects of FFI as well as the L2 acquisition of English articles.

Bryfonski and McKay published a meta-analytic review of reports on the effectiveness of task-based programs relative to other types of programs. The aggregated effect in support of task-based programs was substantial. However, Boers et al. re-examined the 27 comparative studies from which this effect size was calculated and argued that, with one exception, they did not serve the intended purpose of the meta-analysis well. However, in a recent publication, Xuan et al. argue that a good number of the primary studies used by Bryfonski and McKay are in fact suitable for a meta-analysis if the programs they assess are re-defined as task-supported rather than task-based programs. Xuan et al. then conducted a meta-analysis of 16 of the 27 comparative studies that were originally included in Bryfonski and McKay’s analysis, confirming the benefits of programs that use tasks, albeit with a smaller aggregated effect size. The present article revisits these 16 studies and, in addition, examines a handful more recent ones published since Bryfonski and McKay’s original meta-analysis. The conclusion remains that the field is not ripe yet for a meaningful meta-analysis of the relative effectiveness of either task-based or task-supported programs. Interpreting the outcomes of the meta-analytic endeavours reported so far is especially difficult because of a lack of clarity in both the primary study reports and the meta-analyses of what constitutes a task-supported program and of what is understood by ‘task’.

This study investigates the effects of two task factors (i.e. task complexity and task sequence) and an interlocutor factor (i.e. interlocutor familiarity) on Chinese English as a foreign language (EFL) learners’ self-repair strategies during synchronous online task-based interaction. Four decision-making tasks were conducted to elicit oral interactions from 44 low-level proficiency EFL learners, who were required to complete the tasks in pairs in either a simple-to-complex sequence or a complex-to-simple sequence. Information about the learners’ familiarity with their partners was collected through interviews. Learners’ self-repair was analysed in terms of various recycling and replacement strategies. The results revealed that complex tasks facilitated learners in replacing items to solve problems, while the simple-to-complex task sequence enabled them to produce more self-repair by repeating or replacing items than the complex-to-simple task sequence. Interlocutor familiarity on its own did not influence the learners’ self-repair, but it had effects when combined with task sequence.

Synchronous computer-mediated communication (SCMC) offers second/foreign language (L2/FL) learners’ interactional environments that are unique to face-to-face (F2F) communication. Such modes have the potential to facilitate better learning outcomes under certain conditions. The aim of this study was to compare the capacity of two online modes – text chat and voice chat – to promote uptake of targeted vocabulary in an English as a foreign language (EFL) classroom setting. Three distinct tasks (opinion exchange, dictogloss, problem-solving task) were used to measure the effectiveness of both modes to facilitate immediate and delayed uptake compared to F2F communication. The study investigated: (1) how task design and communication mode affected EFL uptake; (2) the effect time allocation had; and (3) the degree to which task perceptions differed depending on communication mode. The effectiveness of the three modes and tasks was measured using a series of pre-tests and post-tests. Post-questionnaires and interviews were also conducted to gain insight into the participants’ perceptions of the tasks. The investigation revealed both similarities and differences in the way SCMC and F2F communication affected learner uptake and demonstrated that certain task design features, such as input, time allocation, and goal orientation, can play a role in the effectiveness of text chat and voice chat to promote uptake in the EFL classroom.

Accomplishing oral interactive workplace tasks requires various language abilities, including pragmatics. While technology-mediated tasks are thought to offer many possibilities for teaching and assessing second language (L2) pragmatics, their effectiveness – especially those facilitated by an AI agent (artificial intelligence agent) – remains to be explored. This study investigated how 47 tertiary-level learners of English as a second language (ESL) performed on an oral interactive task that required them to make requests to their boss in two distinct modalities. Each participant completed the same task with a fully automated AI agent and with a human interlocutor in a face-to-face format. Findings showed that both modalities elicited language use relevant to the pragmatics target. However, fully automated interactions were found to be more transactional, while face-to-face interactions were more functionally oriented (e.g. more frequent/varied supportive moves). Although fully automated interactive tasks may be useful for eliciting requests, replicating human-to-human interactions remains a challenge.

Drawing on models of first language writing and models of second language (L2) oral task performance, this quasi-experimental study investigated the effect of pre-task planning (PTP) on the product of computer-based L2 writing against a no-planning (NP) condition with the total time-on-task controlled for. It also examined the possible influence of writers’ strategy preferences on the effect of PTP. The study adopted a within-group design. Forty-three participants were required to complete two argumentative essays on a computer with one produced under the PTP condition and the other in the NP condition. A post-task questionnaire was used to collect participants’ strategy preferences. Statistical analyses showed that PTP affected only writing fluency and had no effect on complexity, accuracy, lexis, idea density and coherence and cohesion. Considerable individual differences were found on how learners were affected by the planning conditions but no mediating effect of strategy preferences was evident. Based on the results, we argue that teachers can require students to pre-plan when they want to encourage fluent writing but should not expect PTP to improve text quality in computer-based writing. Theoretical implications are discussed in relation to the different theoretical positions on the effect of PTP.